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Daftar genosida
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Kolonisasi Amerika oleh bangsa Eropa
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Daftar ini mencakup semua peristiwa yang telah diklasifikasikan sebagai genosida oleh para akademisi terkemuka. Karena ada berbagai definisi genosida, daftar ini mencakup peristiwa-peristiwa yang masih menjadi perdebatan akademis mengenai klasifikasinya sebagai genosida dan bukan hanya daftar peristiwa yang telah disetujui secara akademis untuk diakui sebagai genosida. Daftar ini tidak mencakup pembunuhan massal yang belum secara eksplisit didefinisikan sebagai genosida.[a]
Daftar
Istilah genosida masih kontroversial dan akibatnya definisinya pun beragam. Daftar ini hanya mempertimbangkan tindakan-tindakan yang diakui dalam kajian ilmiah sebagai genosida.
| Peristiwa | Lokasi | Periode | Perkiraan korban tewas | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dari | Sampai | Terrendah | Tertinggi | ||
| Deskripsi | Proporsi kelompok yang terbunuh | ||||
| Genosida Gaza | Jalur Gaza, Palestina | 2023 | Kini | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.54,600[b] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.335,500[c] |
|
Menurut komite khusus Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa, Amnesty International, dan sebagian besar pakar dan organisasi HAM lainnya, Israel telah melakukan genosida melawan orang Palestina pada invasinya dan pengeboman Jalur Gaza sebagai bagian dari Perang Gaza.[8][9][10][11] berbagai pengamat, termasuk Komite Khusus PBB untuk penyelidikan praktek Israel dan Pelapor Khusus Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa,[12] mengutip pernyataan oleh para pejabat Israel senior yang mengindikasikan "niat untuk menghancurkan" populasi Gaza secara keseluruhan atau sebagian, sebuah syarat yang dibutuhkan agar ambang batas hukum genosida dapat terpenuhi.[10][11][13] pada Maret 2024, setelah lima bulan pertikaian, tindakan miltier Israel mengakibatkan kematian lebih dari 31.500 orang Palestina – 1 dari setiap 75 orang di Gaza – rata-rata 195 pembunuhan sehari,[14] dan sekitar 40.000 kematian terkonfirmasi pada bulan Juli. Kebanyakan korban adalah warga sipil,[15][16] termasuk lebih dari 25.000 wanita dan anak,[17][18] 185 wartawan,[19] dan lebih dari 1.000 tenaga pelayanan kesehatan.[20] Ribuan jasad lainnya berada di bawah puing-puing bangunan yang dihancurkan.[21][22][23] |
|||||
| Genosida Rohingya | Negara Bagian Rakhine, Myanmar | 2016 | Kini | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.9,000–0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.13,700[25] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.43,000[26] |
| Genosida Rohingya[27] adalah serangkaian penindasan dan pembunuhan terkini terhadap Muslim Rohingya oleh militer Myanmar. Genosida tersebut terdiri dari dua fase sampai saat ini: pertama adalah pertikaian miltier yang terjadi dari Oktober 2016 sampai Januari 2017, dan kedua terjadi sejak Agustus 2017.[28]
Krisis tersebut memaksa lebih dari sejuta Rohingya kabur ke negara lain. Kebanyakan kabur ke Bangladesh, yang dihasilkan dalam pembentukan kamp pengungsi terbesar di dunia,[29] sementara lainnya kabur ke India, Thailand, Malaysia, dan belahan Asia Selatan dan Asia Tenggara lainnya, tempat mereka terus menghadapi penindasan. Rohingya mengalami penolakan kewarganegaraan di bawah UU kewarganegaraan Myanmar tahun 1982, dan secara keliru disangka sebagai imigran Bengali oleh kebanyakan suku Bamar di Myanmar, sampai pemerintah menolak mengakui keberadaan Rohingya sebagai kelompok etnis yang sah.[30] |
Sebelum krisis pengungsi 2015, populasi Rohingya di Myanmar berjumlah sekitar 1.0 sampai 1.3 juta. Sejak 2015, lebih dari 900.000 pengungsi Rohingya kabur ke Bangladesh tenggara sendiri, dan selebihnya ke negara-negara sekitar lainnya. Lebih dari 100.000 orang Rohingya di Myanmar ditahan di kamp untuk orang terusir secara internal. | ||||
| Penindasan Uighur di Tiongkok | Xinjiang, Tiongkok | 2016 | Kini | ||
| Merebaknya pelanggaran hak asasi manusia oleh Partai Komunis Tiongkok melawan suku Uighur dan minoritas Muslim lainnya seringkali disifatkan sebagai genosida.[31] Terdapat laporan penangkapan dan penahanan arbitrasi, penyiksaan, pengawasan massal, penindasan budaya dan agama, pemisahan keluarga, tenaga kerja paksa, kekerasan seksual, dan pelanggaran hak reproduktif, termasuk sterilisasi paksa.[32][33] Mahkamah Uighur menyimpulkan bahwa "tak ada bukti pembunuhan massal" tetapi "dugaan upaya mencegah kelahiran terhitung sebagai niat jahat genosida."[34] |
| ||||
| Genosida Ukrania pada Perang Rusia-Ukraina | Ukraina | 2014 | Kini | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.13,341[36] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.50,000[37] |
| Sejumlah cendekiawan genosida,[38] pengamat, pakar hukum, Organisasi Hak Asasi Manusia dan parlemen nasional banyak negara menyatakan bahwa kejahatan perang Rusia dan kejahatan melawan kemanusiaan yang dilakukan melawan warga sipil Ukraina pada Perang Rusia–Ukraina, yang meliputi pembunuhan massal, serangan terhadap tempat perlindungan, rute evakuasi, dan koridor kemanusiaan, pengeboman kawasan pemukiman, pemicuan yang disengaja dan sistematis terhadap kondisi mengancam nyawa lewat pengepungan militer, pemerkosaan dan kekerasan seksual terhitung sebagai genosida dan niat jahat genosida dengan tujuan menghancurkan kelompok nasional Ukraina.[39][40] |
| ||||
| Genosida Yazidi | Wilayah yang dikuasai Negara Islam Irak dan Syam di Irak utara dan Suriah | 2014 | 2017 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.2,100[43] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.5,000[44] |
| Genosida Yazidi dilakukan oleh Negara Islam Irak dan Syam di sepanjang Irak dan Suriah antara 2014 dan 2017.[45][46][47] Tindakan tersebut disifatkan oleh pembantaian pemerkosaan genosida, dan pemindahan paksa ke Islam. Sepanjang periode tiga tahun, militan Negara Islam Irak dan Syam memperdagangkan ribuan wanita dan gadis Yazidi dan membantai ribuan pria Yazidi.[48] Komisi Penyelidikan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa di Suriah resmi mendeklarasikan dalam laporannya bahwa NIIS melakukan genosida melawan populasi Yazidi.[49] Sulit untuk menentukan jumlah pasti untuk pembantaian tersebut[50] tetapi diketahui bahwa sekitar ribuan pria dan pemuda Yazidi masih tak terhitung dan tindakan genosda NIIS melawan orang-orang Yazidi masih terjadi, sebagaimana yang dikatakan oleh Komisi Internasional pada Juni 2016. Lihat pula: Pengeboman komunitas Yazidi 2007 |
Sebuah kajian mendapati bahwa 3.100 orang dibantai dan 6.880 orang diculik, terhitung 2.5% orang Yazidi dibantai atau diculik.[51] Pada 2015, lebih dari 71% populasi Yazidi global terusir oleh genosida tersebut, dengan kebanyakan pengungsi Yazidi kabur ke Kurdistan, Irak dan Rojava, Suriah.[52][53] | ||||
| Genosida Darfur | Darfur, Sudan | 2003 | 2005 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.98,000[54] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.500,000[55] |
| Genosida Darfur adalah pembunuhan sistematis etnis Darfur yang terjadi pada perang di Darfur.[56] Genosida tersebut, yang dilakukan melawan kelompok etnis Fur, Masalit dan Zaghawa, membuat Mahkamah Kriminal Internasional mendakwa banyak orang atas kejahatan melawan kemanusiaan, pemerkosaann, pemindahan paksa dan penyiksaan. Ini meliputi presiden SudanUmar al-Basyir atas perannya dalam genosida tersebut.[57] Sekitar 200.000 orang tewas antara 2003 dan 2005.[58] These atrocities have been called the first genocide of the 21st century.[56] | |||||
| Effacer le tableau | Provinsi Nord-Kivu, Republik Demokratim Kongo | 2002 | 2003 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.60,000[59][60] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.70,000[59] |
| Effacer le tableaucode: fr is deprecated ("penghapusan papan") adalah nama operasi yang diberikan kepada pemusnahan sistematis pigmi Bambuti oleh pasukan pemerontak di Republik Demokratik Kongo. Tujuan utama Effacer le tableau adalah penaklukan wilayah provinsi Provinsi Nord-Kivu dan pembersihan etnis pigmi dari wilaayh timur Kongo.[60] | 7001400000000000000♠40% populasi Pigmi di Kongo Timur dibantai[N 1] | ||||
| Pembantaian Hutu pada Perang Kongo Pertama | Kivu, Zaire | 1996 | 1997 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.200,000[61] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.233,000[61] |
| Pada Perang Kongo I, pasukan bekingan Rwanda Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïrecode: fr is deprecated (AFDL) melakukan pembunuhan massal pria, wanita, dan anak-anak Hutu Rwanda, Kongo dan Burundi di desa-desa dan kamp-kamp pengungsi di Zaire timur (kini disebut Republik Demokratik Kongo).[62][63] Sejumlah pasukan AFDL dan Pasukan Patriotik Rwanda secara sistematis menyerang sejumlah kamp dan melakukan pembantaian dengan senjata ringan. Serangan awal membantai 6.800–8.000 pengungsi dan memaksa pengembalian 500.000 – 700.000 pengungsi kembali ke Rwanda.[64]As survivors fled westward, the AFDL units hunted them down killing thousands more.[62] | |||||
| Genosida Rwanda | Rwanda | 1994 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.491,000[65] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.800,000[66] | |
| Genosida Rwanda, juga dikenal sebagai genosida melawan Tutsi, terjadi antara 7 April dan 19 Juli 1994 pada Perang Saudara Rwanda.[65][67][68] Pada masa sekitar 100 hari, para anggota kelompok etnis minoritas Tutsi, seta sejumlah Hutu dan Twa moderat, dibantai oleh militan Hutu bersenjata. Meskipun Konstitusi Rwanda menyatakan bahwa lebih dari 1 juta orang tewas dalam genosida tersebut, jumlah korban tewas sebenarnya tidak jelas, dan beberapa perkiraan menyatakan bahwa jumlah korban tewas sebenarnya nampaknya lebih rendah.[68][69][70] Perkiraan cendekiawan yang paling banyak diterima adalah sekitar 500.000 sampai 800.000 korban tewas Tutsi.[66] | 7001400000000000000♠60–70% Tutsi di Rwanda tewas[65] 7% dari total populasi Rwanda tewas[65] | ||||
| Genosida Bosnia | Bosnia dan Herzegovina | 1992 | 1995 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.31,107[71] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.62,013[71] |
| Genosida Bosnia terdiri dari pembantaian lokal, termasuk kejadian-kejadian di Srebrenica[72] dan Žepa, yang dilakukan oleh pasukan Serbia Bosnia pada 1995, serta kampanye pembersihan etnis di seluruh wilayah yang dikuasai oleh Tentara Republika Srpska[73] pada Perang Bosnia 1992–1995.[74] Pada 31 Maret 2010, Parlemen Serbia mengesahkan resolusi yang mengecam pembantaian Srebrenica dan meminta maaf kepada keluarga-keluarga Srebrenica atas kematian orang-orang Bosnia ("Muslim Bosnia").[75] | 7000300000000000000♠Lebih dari 3% populasi orang Bosnia di Bosnia dan Herzegovina tewas pada Perang Bosnia.[76] | ||||
| Genosida Isaaq | Somaliland, Somalia | 1987 | 1989 | &&&&&&&&&&050000.&&&&&050.000[77][78] | &&&&&&&&&0200000.&&&&&0200.000[79] |
| Genosida Isaaqs adalah pembantaian sistematis yang disponsori negara terhadap warga sipil Isaaq antara 1988 dan 1991 oleh Republik Demokratik Somali di bawah kediktatoran Siad Barre.[80][81][82] Ini meliputi penghancuran besar dan menyeluruh terhadap kota terbesar kedua dan ketiga di Somalia, yakni Hargeisa (90 persen hancur)[83] dan Burao (70 persen hancur),[84] dan menyebabkan 400.000[85][86] orang Somalia (terutama suku Isaaq) untuk kabur dari wilayah mereka dan melintasi perbatasan menuju Hartasheikh di Etiopia sebagai pengungsi,[87] dengan 400.000 orang lainnya terusir secara internal.[85][88]Pada 2001, Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa menyerukan penyelidikan terhadap pelanggaran hak asasi manusia di Somalia,[80] khususnya untuk mencari "kejahatan yurisdiksi internasional (seperti kejahatan perang, kejahatan melawan kemanusiaan atau genosida) telah dilakukan pada perang saudara negara tersebut". Penyelidikan tersebut dilakukan bersama oleh Unit Kerjasama Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa dan Jawatan Komisioner Tinggi Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa untuk Hak Asasi Manusia. Penyelidikan dilakukan dengan laporan yang mengkonfirmasikan kejahatan genosida dilakukan melawan Isaaqs di Somalia.[80] | 7000400000000000000♠ | ||||
| Kampanye Anfal | Kurdistan, Irak | 1986 | 1989 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.50,000[89] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.182,000[90] |
| Kampanye Anfal adalah operasi penumpasan pemberontakan yang dilakukan oleh Ba'athis Irak dari Februari sampai September 1988 pada konflik Irak-Kurdi menjelang akhir Perang Iran–Irak. Kampanye tersebut mentargetkan Kurdi pedesaan[91] karena tujuannya adalah untuk menumpas kelompok pemberontak kursi dan belahan strategis ter-Arabisasi dari Kegubernuran Kirkuk.[92] Irak melakukan kejahatan terhadap penduduk Kurdi lokal, kebanyakan warga sipil.[93] Sejumlah pemerintahan nasional mengesahkan resolusi mengakui kampanye Anfal sebagai genosida.[94][95][96] | |||||
| Pembantaian Sabra dan Shatila | Beirut, Lebanon | 1982 | &&&&&&&&&&&&0460.&&&&&0460[97] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.3,500[98] | |
| Pembantaian Sabra dan Shatila adalah pembunuhan tertanggal 16–18 September 1982 terhadap warga sipil—kebanyakan orang Palestina dan Syiah Lebanon—di kota Beirut pada Perang Saudara Lebanon. Pembantaian tersebut dilakukan oleh Pasukan Lebanon, salah satu militan Kristen utama di Lebanon, dan didukung oleh Pasukan Pertahanan Israel yang telah mengepung kawasan Sabra, Beirut dan sekitaran kamp pengungsi Shatila.[99] Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa dan komisi independen yang dikepalai oleh Seán MacBride menyatakan bahwa pembantaian tersebut merupakan tindakan genosida melawan orang Palestina,[100][101] sebuah kesimpulan yang didulung oleh organisasi-organisasi non-pemerintahan seperti Palestinian Return Centre.[102] Cendekiawan hak asasi manusia Damien Short dan Haifa Rashed juga menyebut pembantaian tersebtu bersifat genosidal.[103] | |||||
| Genosida Kamboja | Kamboja Demokratik (Kamboja) | 1975 | 1979 | &&&&&&&&01386734.&&&&&01.386.734[104][105] | &&&&&&&&03000000.&&&&&03.000.000[106][107] |
| Genosida Kamboja adalah penindasan sistematis dan pembunuhan warga Kamboja oleh Khmer Merah, pimpinan Pol Pot.[108] Khmer Merah mengosongkan kota-kota dan memaksa warga Kamboja untuk pindah ke kamp-kamp buruh di pinggiran negara, tempat eksekusi massal, kerja paksa, pelecehan fisik, malnutrisi, dan penyakit merebak.[109][110] Lebih dari 20.000 pemakaman massal, Lapangan Pembantaian yang terkenal, ditemukan, tempat setidaknya 1.386.734 korban pembantaian mendapatkan tempat peristirahatan terakhir mereka.[111][112] Mahkamah Khmer Merah menyatakan bahwa penargetan minoritas Vietnam dan Cham memenuhi ketentuan genosida menurut Konvensi PBB.[113][114] | 15–33% dari total populasi Kamboja tewas,[115][116] termasuk 99% orang Vietnam di Kamboja, 50% Tionghoa Kamboja dan suku Cham, 40% orang Laos dan Thai di Kamboja, 25% orang Khmer perkotaan, 16% orang Khmer pedesaan | ||||
| Genosida Timor Timur | Timor Timur, Indonesia | 1974 | 1999 | &&&&&&&&&&085320.&&&&&085.320[117] | &&&&&&&&&0196720.&&&&&0196.720[118] |
| Genosida Timor Timur merujuk kepada "kampanye pasifikasi" terorisme negara yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah Ordo Baru indonesia pada masa invasi dan pendudukan Timor Timur oleh Indonesia. Para cendekiawan genosida di Universitads Oxford dan Universitas Yale mengakui pendudukan Timor Timur oleh Indonesia sebagai genosida.[119][120] Komisi pencari fakta menyatakan bahwa pasukan Indonesia bertanggung jawab atas sekitar 70% pembunuhan kekerasan.[121] | 7001200000000000000♠13% sampai 44% dari total populasi Timor Timur tewas (Lihat jumlah korban tewas genosida Timor Timur) | ||||
| Genosida Bangladesh | Pakistan Timur (kini Bangladesh) | 1971 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.300,000[122] | &&&&&&&&03000000.&&&&&03.000.000[122][123] | |
| Genosida Bangladesh adalah pembersihan etnis orang Bengali khususnya Hindu Bengali,[124] yang bermukim di Pakistan Timur (kini Bangladesh) pada masa Perang Kemerdekaan Bangladesh, didalangi oleh Angkatan Bersenjata Pakistan dan Razakar.[125][126] Peristiwa tersebut dimulai dengan Operasi Searchlight yang diluncurkan oleh Pakistan Barat (kini Pakistan) untuk secara militer menduduki populasi Bengali di Pakistan Timur; suku Bengali meliputi mayoritas demografi dan telah menyerukan kemerdekaan. Berniat untuk membendung gerakan penentuan nasib sendiri Bengali, presiden Pakistan Yahya Khan menyepakati pengerahan militer skala besar, dan dalam konflik enam bulan yang terjadi, para prajurit Pakistan dan militan lokal menewaskan antara 300.000 dan 3.000.000 orang Bengali dan memperkosa antara 200.000 dan 400.000 wanita Bengali dalam kampanye sistematis pembunuhan massal dan kekerasan seksual genosidal.[127] | 7000200000000000000♠4% populasi Pakistan Timur[128] | ||||
| Genosida Maya | Guatemala | 1962 | 1996 | &&&&&&&&&0166000.&&&&&0166.000[129] | &&&&&&&&&0166000.&&&&&0166.000[130] |
| Genosida Guatemala adalah pembantaian warga sipil Maya pada Perang Saudara Guatemala (1960–1996) oleh pemerintahan militer Guatemala bekingan AS berturut-turut.[131][132][133][134] Pembantaian, penghilangan paksa, penyiksaan, dan eksekusi kilat terhadap para grilyawan dan khususnya warga sipil di tangan pasukan keamanan merebak sejak 1965, dan kebijakan jangka panjang rezim miltier, yang disadari oleh para pejabat AS.[135][136] Setidaknya sekitar 200.000 orang tewas akibat eksekusi kilat, penghilangan paksa dan pelanggaran hak asasi manusia lainnya.[137] 83% orang yang terbunuh adalah Maya.[138] Seperempat korban pelanggaran hak asasi manusia dan tindak kekerasan secara langsung adalah wanita.[139] | 7001400000000000000♠40% populasi Maya (24.000 orang) di kawasan Ixil dan Rabinal, Guatemala dibunuh | ||||
| Genosida Tamil | Sri Lanka | 1956 | 2009 | &&&&&&&&&0154022.&&&&&0154.022 | &&&&&&&&&0253818.&&&&&0253.818 |
| Genosida Tamil merujuk kepada berbagai tindakan kekerasan fisik dan penghancuran budaya sistematis yang dilakukan melawan populasi Tamil di Sri Lanka dalam konflik etnis Sinhala–Tamil yang bermula pada 1956, terutama pada Perang Saudara Sri Lanka. berbagai pengamat menuduh negara Sri Lanka bertanggung jawab dan melakukan genosida terhadap orang-orang Tamil, dan menekankan kolonialisme pemukim yang disponsori negara, pogrom yang dibekingi negara, dan pembantaian massal, penghilangan paksa dan kekerasan seksual oleh pasukan keamanan sebagai contoh tindakan genosida.[140][141][142] | |||||
| Pemindahan penduduk di Uni Soviet[143] | Uni Soviet | 1941 | 1949 | 800,000[144] | 1,500,000.[145] |
| Tak lama sebelum, saat dan setelah Perang Dunia II, Uni Soviet melakukan serangkaian deportasi pada skala besar.[146] Diperkirakan bahwa antara 1941 dan 1948, sekitar 3.3 juta orang dari kelompok etnis berbeda dideportasi ke Siberia dan republik-republik Asia Tengah.[147] Kebanyakan orang yang dideportasi tewas saat perjalanan atau karena iklim keras Siberia dan Kazakhstan, penyakit, malnutrisi, kerja paksa dan kurangnya perumahan.[148]
Dipersengketakan apakah deportasi tersebut daapt disebut pembersihan etnis, genosida atau hal lainnya. Beberapa sejarawan berpendapat bahwa otoritas Soviet mengakui bahwa kondisi orang-orang yang dideprotasi yang akan dihadapi akan berujung pada kematian massal. Yang lainnya berpendapat bahwa tak ada niat untuk memusnahkan orang-orang tertindas yang dapat teridentifikasi, dan bahwa motif utama otoritas Soviet adalah untuk meningkatkan keamanan di wilayah sengketa perbatasan.[149] Kelompok etnis yang terdampak meliputi:
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Sekitar 25 sampai 35 persen | ||||
| Pengepungan Leningrad[158][159][160] | Sankt-Peterburg | 1941 | 1944 | &&&&&&&&01042000.&&&&&01.042.000[161][162] | &&&&&&&&01042000.&&&&&01.042.000[161][162] |
| Beberapa sejarawan dan pemerintahan Rusia mengklasifikasikan pengepungan tersebut, kala kebijakan Jerman dan Finlandia berujung pada kematian lebih dari 1 juta warga sipil akibat kelaparan, sebagai genosida.[161] | |||||
| Holokaus | Jerman Nazi dan Wilayah pendudukan Jerman di Eropa | 1941 | 1945 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.5,100,000 |
&&&&&&&&07000000.&&&&&07.000.000 |
| Holocaust adalah genosida Yahudi-Eropa pada Perang Dunia II. Antara 1941 dan 1945, Jerman Nazi dan para kolaboratornya secara sistematis membantai sektiar enam juta Yahudi di seluruuh belahan wilayah pendudukan Jerman di Eropa, sekitar dua per tiga populasi Yahudi-Eropa.[166][167][168] Sekitar satu setengah juta orang tewas dalam 100 hari dari akhir Juli sampai awal November 1942.[169] Pembantaian utamanya dilakukan melalui penembakan massal dan gas berracun di kamp-kamp pemusnahan.[170] Peninasan Nazi terpisah menewaskan jumlah setara atau lebih besar terhadap warga sipil dan tahanan perang non-Yahudi; istilah Holokaus terkadang dipakai untuk merujuk kepada penindasan kelompok lainnya. Holokaus dianggap sebagai genosida tunggal terbesar dalam sejarah.[171][172] | 7001660000000000000♠Sekitar 2/3 populasi Yahudi-Eropa.[173][174] | ||||
| Genosida Serbia dan Holokaus di Negara Independen Kroasia | Negara Independen Kroasia (kini Kroasia dan Bosnia dan Herzegovina) |
1941 | 1945 | &&&&&&&&&0248000.&&&&&0248.000 |
&&&&&&&&&0548000.&&&&&0548.000 |
| Genosida Serbia dan Holokaus Yahudi dan Romani di Negara Independen Kroasia, sebuah negara boneka fasis yang beridir pada masa Perang Dunia II, pimpinan rezim Ustaše, yang memerintah wilaayh pendudukan Yugoslavia. Genosida Serbia dilakukan bersamaan dengan Holokaus di Negara Independen Kroasia. Ustaše menjadi satu-satunya pasukan quisling di Yugoslavia yang mengoperasikan kamp pemusnahan mereka sendiri untuk keperluan membantai Serbia dan kelompok etnis lainnya (Yahudi dan Romani). | |||||
| Genosida Bosnia dan Kroasia oleh Chetnik | Yugoslavia | 1941 | 1945 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.47,000[178] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.68,000[178] |
| Pembantaian genosida dan pembersihan etnis Muslim dan Kroasia oleh royalis dan nasionalis Yugoslavia Chetniks di sepanjang sebagain besar wilayah pendudukan Yugoslavia (kini Bosnia dan Herzegovina, Kroasia, Serbia) pada Perang Dunia II di Yugoslavia, atas dasar pembuatan Serbia Raya pasca-perang.[179] Rencana Moljević ("Tentang Negara Kami dan Perbatasannya") dan 'Instruksi' tahun 1941 yang dikeluarkan oleh pemimpin Chetnik, Draža Mihailović, mengadvokasikan pembersihan non-Serbia. Jumlah korban tewas menurut etnisitas berjumlah sekitar antara 18.000 dan 32.000 orang Kroasia dan antara 29.000 dan 33.000 Muslim.[180] | |||||
| Kejaharan Nazi melawan bangsa Polandia[181][182] (bagian dari Generalplan Ost) | Wilayah pendudukan Jerman di Eropa | 1939 | 1945 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.1,800,000[183] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.3,000,000[184][185] |
| Kejahatan melawan bangsa Polandia dilakukan oleh Jerman Nazi dan pasukan kolaborasionis Poros] pada invasi Polandia,[186] bersama dengan batalion auksilier pada peendudukan Polandia berikutnya dalam Perang Dunia II,[187] termasuk genosida jutaan orang Polandia, khsusunya pemusnahan sistematis Yahudi-Polandia.[e] Pembunuhan massal tersebut diberlakukan oleh Nazi dengan rencana berikutnya yang dibenarkan oleh teori-teori rasial mereka, yang menganggap Polandia dan Slavia lainnya, dan khususnya Yahudi, sebagai ras rendah Untermenschencode: de is deprecated . | Dari 6% sampai 10% (1.8 sampai 3 juta) dari total populasi Polandia non-Yahudi.[185] Selain itu, 3 juta Yahudi Polandia tewas pada Holokaus di Polandia (90% Yahudi Polandia).[183] | ||||
| Holokaus Romani | Wilayah pendudukan Jerman di Eropa | 1939[189] | 1945 | &&&&&&&&&0130000.&&&&&0130.000[190] | &&&&&&&&01500000.&&&&&01.500.000[191][192] |
| Holokaus Romani adalah upaay terrencana oleh Jerman Nazi beserta sekutu dan kolaborator Perang Dunia II-nya untuk melakukan pembersihan etnis dan kemudian genosida melawan suku bangsa Roma Eropa dan Sinti pada era Holokaus.[193] Sebuah dekrit suplementer Undang-Undang Nürnberg yang dikeluarkan pada 26 November 1935 mengklasifikasi orang Romani sebagai "musuh negara berbasis ras", sehingga menempatkan mereka dalam kategori yang sama dengan [[Yahudi di Jerman Nazi|Yahudi[[. Sehingga, nasib Roma di Eropa setara dengan Yahudi dalam Holokaus.[194][195] | 7001250000000000000♠25% sampai 80% orang Romani di Eropa tewas | ||||
| Operasi massal NKVD | Uni Soviet | 1937 | 1938 | 247,157[196] | |
| Pada Pembersihan Besar-Besaran, orang-orang dari kelompok etnis tertentu diwakili sebagai korban penangkapan dan eksekusi.[197] Meskipun beberapa sejarawan berpendapat bahwa korban kebanyakan ditargetkan karena etnisitas mereka, sejarawan Andrey Savin menyatakan bahwa "fakto penentu dalam pemilihan mayoritas korban operasi nasional, sesuai aturan, adalah kriteria obyektif dari asal usul/masa lalu sosial “bergesekan” dan kriteria subyektif dari perilaku “anti-Soviet” saat ini".[198] Berbagai sejarawan menerbitkan wacana yang menyebut operasi Polandia sebagai genosida.[199] 7001130000000000000♠22% populasi Polandia di USSR "dihukum" pada operasi tersebut (140.000 orang)[200]
Operasi Jernam NKVD juga disebut sebagai genosifa.[201] |
|||||
| Pembantaian peterseli | Republik Dominika | 1937 | &&&&&&&&&&012000.&&&&&012.000 | &&&&&&&&&&040000.&&&&&040.000[202] | |
| Pembantaian peterseli adalah pembantaian massal orang-orang Haiti yang tinggal di garis depan barat laut Republik Dominika dan belahan tertentu wilayah Cibao pada Oktober 1937. Pasukan Angkatan Bersenjata Dominika dari wilayah berbeda di negara tersebut[203] melakukan pembantaian atas perintah diktator Dominika Rafael Trujillo.[204] Kebanyakan kematian terjadi saat berniat untuk kabur ke Haiti melewati Sungai Dajabón yang membagi dua negara di pulau tersebut;[205] pasukan menyusul mereka ke sungai dengan memotong perjalanan mereka, menyebabkan sunyai teraliri dengan darah dan jasad selama beberapa tahun. Pembantaian tersebut diklaim merenggut nyawa sekitar 14.000 sampai 40.000 pria, wanita dan anak-anak Haiti.[206] Pasukan Dominika menginterogasi ribuan warga sipil yang menuntut agar setiap korban berkata "peterseli" (perejil). Jika terdakwa tak dapat mengucapkan kata tersebut kepada para interogator, mereka dianggap sebagai orang Haiti dan dibunuh.[207][208] | 7001990000000000000♠Akibat pembantaian tersebut, seluruh populasi Haiti di garis depan Dominika dibunuh atau terpaksa kabur melintasi perbatasan.[209] | ||||
| Holodomor | Ukraina dan Kuban utara,[210] Uni Soviet | 1932 | 1933 | &&&&&&&&03000000.&&&&&03.000.000[211] | &&&&&&&&05000000.&&&&&05.000.000[211] |
| Holodomor juga dikenal sebagai Bencana Kelaparan Ukraina adalah bencana kelaparan buatan manusia di Ukraina Soviet dari 1932 sampai 1933 yang menewaskan jutaan orang Ukraina. Holodomor adalah bagian dari bencana kelaparan Soviet 1930–1933 yang lebih luas dan berdampak pada kawasan penghasil gandum besar Uni Soviet.Meskipun para cendekiawan dalam konsensus menyatakan bahwa penyebab bencana kelaparan tersebut adalah buatan manusia,[212] apakah Holodomor disengaja atau tidak dan sehingga penyebutan genosida di bawah Konvensi Genosida diperdebatkan oleh para cendekiawan.[213][214] | 10% populasi Ukraina[215] Lebih dari 35% orang Ukraina di Kazakhstan[216] | ||||
| Genosida Libya | Libya Italia | 1929 | 1932 | &&&&&&&&&&083000.&&&&&083.000[217] | &&&&&&&&&0125000.&&&&&0125.000+[218] |
| Genosida Libya adalah genosida Arab Libya dan penghancuran sistematis budaya Libya,[219][220][221] terutama saat dan setelah Pasifikasi Libya antara 1929 dan 1934.[222] Pada periode tersebut, antara 83.000 dan 125.000 orang Libya dibantai oleh otoritas kolonial Italia di bawah naungan Benito Mussolini.[217][218] Italia melakukan kejahatan perang besar pada konflik tersebut; termaasuk pemakaian senjata kimia, eksekusi pasukan penyerang, dan eksekusi massal warga sipil.[217] Italia meminta maaf pada 2008 atas pembunuhan, penghancuran dan penindasan orang Libya pada masa pemerintahan kolonial.[223] | &&&&&&&&&&&&&025.&&&&&025% populasi Cyrenaican[224] Separuh populasi Bedawi nomadik[225][226][227] | ||||
| Genosida Armenia | Kesultanan Utsmaniyah (kini Turki, Suriah, dan Irak) | 1915 | 1917 | &&&&&&&&&0600000.&&&&&0600.000[228] | &&&&&&&&01500000.&&&&&01.500.000[229] |
| Genosida Armenia,[230][231] dilakukan oleh Turki Muda, yang meliputi pembantaian, deportasi paksa yang melibatkan kirab maut, dan kelaparan massal. Kejadian tersebut terjadi bersamaan dengan genosida Asiria dan Yunani; beberapa cendekiawan menganggapnya membentuk genosida lebih luas yang mentargetkan seluruh orang Kristen di Anatolia.[232][233] | Sekitar 90% orang Armenia di Kekaisaran Utsmaniyah dibantai atau diusir.[234] Jumlah Kristen di wilayah tersebut dalam perbatasaan Turki saat ini turun dari 20-22% pada 1914, atau sekitar 3.3.–3.6 juta orang, menjadi sekitar 3% pada 1927.[235] | ||||
| Sayfo | Kesultanan Utsmaniyah (kini Turki, Suriah dan Irak) | 1915 | 1919 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.200,000[236] | |
| Sayfo (juga dikenal sebagai Seyfo atau genosida Asiria) adalah penjagalan massal dan deportasi orang Asiria/Kristen Suryani di Anatolia tenggara dan provinsi Azerbaijan, Persia oleh pasukan Utsmaniyah dan beberapa suku Kurdi pada Perang Dunia I. | 7001400000000000000♠Secara keseluruhan, sekitar 2 juta orang Kristen dibantai di Anatolia antara 1894 dan 1924, 40 persen dari populasi aslinya.[237] | ||||
| Genosida Yunani dan genosida Pontos | Kesultanan Utsmaniyah (kini Turki) | 1914 | 1922 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.300,000[238] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.1,200,000[239] |
| Genosida Yunani,[240][241] yang meliputi genosida Pontos, adalah pembantaian sistematis populasi Kristen Yunani Utsmaniyah Anatolia yang utamanya dilakukan pada Perang Dunia I dan setelahnya (1914–1922) atas dasar agama dan etnisitas mereka.[242] Genosida tersebut didalangi oleh pemerintahan Kesultanan Utsmaniyah pimpinan Tiga Pasha dan Pemerintahan Majelis Nasional Besar pimpinan Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,[243] terhadap populasi Yunani di Kekaisaran tersebut. Genosida tersebut meliputi pembantaian, deportasi paksa yang melibatkan kirab maut menuju Gurun Pasir Suriah,[244] pengusiran, eksekusi kilat, dan penghancuran monumen budaya, sejarah dan keagamaan Gereja Ortodoks Timur.[245] | Setidaknya 25% Yunani di Anatolia (Turki) dibantai[246] | ||||
| Genosida Herero dan Nama | Afrika Barat Daya Jernam (kini Namibia) | 1904 | 1908 | &&&&&&&&&&034000.&&&&&034.000[247] | &&&&&&&&&0110000.&&&&&0110.000[248][249] |
| Genosida di Afrika Barat Daya Jerman adalah kampanye untuk memusnahkan orang Herero dan Nama yang dilakukan oleh Kekaisaran Jerman di Afrika Barat Daya Jerman (kini Namibia). Genosida tersebut dianggap sebagai salah satu genosida pertama pada abad ke-20. | 7001700000000000000♠60% (24.000 dari 40.000[247]) sampai 81.25% (65.000[250][251] dari 80.000[252]) dari total orang Herero dan 50%[247] orang Nama dibantai. | ||||
| Genosida Selknam | Tierra del Fuego, Chili, Argentina | 1880 | 1910 | &&&&&&&&&&&02500.&&&&&02.500[253] | &&&&&&&&&&&04000.&&&&&04.000[254] |
| Genosida Selknam adalah pemusnahan sistematis suku Selkʼnam, sebuah suku bangsa asli kepulauan Tierra del Fuego oleh kombinasi pemburu, peternak, penambang emas, dan prajurit Eropa dan Amerika Selata.[255][256][254] Para sejarawan memperkirakan bahwa populasi Selkʼnam turun dari sekitar 4.000 orang apda 1880an menjadi beberapa ratus pada awal 1900an.[253] | 7001840000000000000♠84%Genosida tersebut mengurangi jumlah mereka dari sekitar 3.000 menjadi sekitar 500 orang.[257][258] | ||||
| Genosida Sirkasia | Sirkasia, Kekaisaran Rusia | 1864[N 3] | 1867 | &&&&&&&&01000000.&&&&&01.000.000[259] | &&&&&&&&02000000.&&&&&02.000.000[260][261] |
| Genosida Sirkasia[262][263] adalah pembantaian massal sistematis, pembersihan etnis dan pengusiran populasi Sirkasia di Kekaisaran Rusia, yang mengakibatkan 1 sampai 1.5 juta orang tewas[264][f] pada tahap-tahap terakhir Perang Rusia-Adighe.[265][266] Orang-orang yang direncanakan untuk pemusnahan tersebut utamanya adalah Muslim Sirkasia, tetapi orang-orang Muslim lain di Kaukasus juga terdampak.[266] Metode pembunuhan yang dipakai oleh pasukan Rusia pada genosida tersebut meliputi penusukan dan perobekan perut wanit ahamil sebagai alat intimidasi penduduk Sirkasia.[265][267] Para jenderal Rusia seperti Grigory Zass menyebut Sirkasia sebagai "kotoran manusia rendahan", dan mengglorifikasikan pembantaian massal warga sipil Sirkasia,[265][268] membenarkan pemakaian mereka dalam percobaan ilmiah,[269] dan memperkenankan prajurit mereka untuk memperkosa wanita.[265] | 7001450000000000000♠95%–97% dari total populasi Sirkasia dibantai atau dideportasi oleh pasukan Tsaris Rusia.[270][271] Hanya sebagian kecil yang diterima untuk berpindah ke Kristen, di-Rusifikasi dan dimukimkan kembali ke Kekaisaran Rusia yang dibiarkan. Populasi Sirkasia yang tersisa enggan melakukannya sehingga terpaksa diusir, dideportasi atau dibantai. Saat ini, kebanyakan orang Sirkasia hidup di pengasingan.[272] | ||||
| Genosida California | California, Amerika Serikat | 1846 | 1873 | &&&&&&&&&&&09492.&&&&&09.492–16,094 |
&&&&&&&&&0120000.&&&&&0120.000[274][N 5] |
| Genosida California adalah serangkaian pembantaian sistematis terhadap ribuan penduduk asli California oleh para agen pemerintahan Amerika Serikat dan warga negara swasta pada abad ke-19. Genosida tersebut dimulai setelah Penaklukan California oleh Amerika dari Meksiko, dan penempatan pemukim karena Demam Emas California, yang memicu penurunan penduduk asli California. Antara 1846 dan 1873, diperkirakan bahwa non-pribumi telah membunuh antara 9.492 dan 16.094 pribumi California. Selain itu, antara beberapa ratus dan beberapa ribu pribumi California kelaparan atau bekerja sampai mati. Tindakan perbudakan, penculikan, pemerkosaan, pemisahan anak dan pengusiran paksa tersebar. Tindakan tersebut didorong, ditoleransi dan dilakukan oleh otoritas negara dan militan swasta.[275] | 7001800000000000000♠Populasi Amerindian di California berkurang sampai 80% pada masa itu | ||||
| Genosida Aborigin Queensland | Queensland | 1840 | 1897 | &&&&&&&&&&010000.&&&&&010.000[276] | &&&&&&&&&&065180.&&&&&065.180[277] |
| Queensland mewakili garis depan kolonial tunggal paling berdarah di Australia. Sehingga, catatan Queensland mendokumentasikan banyak laporan penembakan dan pembantaian penduduk asli, tiga pembantaian paling mematikan pada pemukim kulit putih, pasukan polisi garis depan paling tak terhormat, dan jumlah korban kulit putih tertinggi pada kekerasan garis depan dalam catatan di koloni Australia manapun.[278] Sehingga, beberapa sumber menyifatkan peristiwa tersebut sebagai genosida Aborigin Queensland.[276][279] | 7001300000000000000♠3.3% sampai lebih dari 50% populasi aborigin dibantai (10.000[276] sampai 65.180[277] dibantai dari 125.600) | ||||
| Genosida Moriori | Kepulauan Chatham, Selandia Baru | 1835 | 1863 | &&&&&&&&&&&01900.&&&&&01.900[280][281] | &&&&&&&&&&&01900.&&&&&01.900 |
| Genosida Moriori dimulai pada 1836. Invasi Kepulauan Chatham oleh Maori Selandia Baru membuat suku Moriori dan budaya mereka mati. Orang-orang yang masih hidup dijadikan budak dan tak diperkenankan untuk menikahi Moriori lainnya atau memiliki anak dalam ras mereka. Ini menyebabkan suku dan bahasa mereka terancam. Menurut para tetua Moriori, sebanyak 1.561 Moriori tewas antara invasi pada 1835 dan akhir perbudakan kelompok tersebut pada 1863, dengan lainnya sekarat akibat penyakit yang ditularkan oleh orang Eropa.[282] Populasi Moriori berkurang dari 2.000 menjadi hanya 101 pada 1863.[283] | 7001950000000000000♠95% populasi Suku Moriori dimusnahkan oleh invasi dari Taranaki, sebuah kelompok orang dari Ngāti Mutunga dan Ngāti Tama iwi.[284][285] Semuanya diperbudak dan kebanyakan terkanibalisasi.[286] Bahasa Moriori kini telah punah.[283][287] | ||||
| Trail of Tears | Amerika Serikat Tenggara | 1830 | 1850 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.12,000[288] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.16,000[288] |
| Trail of Tears adalah pengusiran paksa sekitar 60.000 orang dari "Lima Suku Beradab" antara 1830 dan 1850, dan ribuan Amerik Asli lainnya dimusnahkan secara etnis oleh pemerintah Amerika Serikat.[289] Sejumlah cendekiaewan mengklasifikasikan Trail of Tears sebagai genosida,[N 6] atau tindakan genosida terhadap genosida Amerika Asli yang lebih luas.[296][N 7] | Angka untuk jumlah kematian per kelompok Amerika Asli yang dipaksa pindah dapat ditemukan di Trail of Tears § Statistik. | ||||
| Perang Hitam (genosida Aborigin Tasmania) | Tanah Van Diemen (Tasmania) | 1825 | 1832 | &&&&&&&&&&&&0400.&&&&&0400[311] | &&&&&&&&&&&01000.&&&&&01.000[311] |
| Kepunahan Aborigin Tasmania disebut sebagai kasus arketipe genosida oleh Rafael Lemkin[312] beserta sejarawan lainnya, sebuah pandangan yang didukung oleh para cendekiawan genosida paling terkini seperti Ben Kiernan yang menyorotinya dalam bukunya Blood and Soil: A History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. Kepunahan tersebut juga meliputi Perang Hitam, yang akan membuat perang tersebut menjadi tindak genosida.[313] Para sejarawan seperti Keith Windschuttle dan para sejarawan mereka menolak penafsiran tersebut dalam lingkup yang dikenal sebagai perang sejarah. | ~100%[313] | ||||
| Pembantaian Haiti 1804 | Haiti | 1804 | &&&&&&&&&&&03000.&&&&&03.000[314] | &&&&&&&&&&&05000.&&&&&05.000[314] | |
| Pembantaian Haiti 1804 dianggap sebagai genosida oleh beberapa cendekiawan,[315][316] karena pembantaian tersebut ditujukan untuk menghancurkan populasi Prancis-Haiti setelah Revolusi Haiti. Pembantaian tersebut diperintahkan oleh Raja Jean-Jacques Dessalines untuk memusnahkan sisa populasi kulti putih dari Haiti, dan berlangsung dari Januari sampai 22 April 1804. Pada pembantaian tersebut, seluruh keluarga disiksa dan dibantai, dan pada akhirnya, populasi kulit putih Haiti tak lagi ada.[317][318] | |||||
| Genosida Tanjung San | Koloni Tanjung Belanda dan Koloni Tanjung Britania (kini Afrika Selatan) | Juga disebut sebagai tahun 1770,[319] "sekitar tahun 1770"[320] atau 1795)[321] | 1828,[321] 1830,[320] atau 1880[319] | ||
| Orang-orang Tanjung San yang ditargetkan pada pembantaian dikenal sebagai "perburuan Suku San"[322] perampasan tanah,[319] forced labor,[319] dan pelecehan anak-anak[320] di tangan pemukim Belanda dan kelompok paramiliter yang mereka bentuk, berujung pada "kepunahan suku bangsa Tanjung San".[323] | |||||
| Genosida Dzungar | Dzungaria, Tiongkok dinasti Qing | 1755 | 1758 | &&&&&&&&&0480000.&&&&&0480.000[324] | &&&&&&&&&0600000.&&&&&0600.000[324] |
| Genosida Dzungar adalah pemusnahan massal Mongol Dzungar oleh dinasti Qing.[325][326] Kaisar Qianlong memerintahkan genosida tersebut setelah pembantaian pada 1755 oleh pemimpin Dzungar Amursana melawan kekuasaan Qing, setelah dinasti tersebut mula-mula menaklukan Kekhanan Zunghar dengan dukungan Amursana. Genosida tersebut didalangi oleh para jenderal Orang Manchu dari pasukan Qing, didukung oleh para penghuni oasis Turkic (kini dikenal sebagai Suku Uighur) yang memberontak melawan kekuasaan Dzungar. | 7001800000000000000♠80% dari 600.000 Suku Oirat Zungharia tewas[g] | ||||
| Perang Iroquois | Amerika Utara | 1640 | 1763 | &&&&&&&&&&&&&&00.&&&&-0 | &&&&&&&&&&&&&&00.&&&&-0 |
| Sebagai bagian dari Peperangan Berang-Berang, salah satu suku bangsa asli di Kanada, Iroquois melakukan perang genosida melawan suku Huron[331] dan suku Iroquoian dan non-Iroquoian lainnya.[332] Pemukiman dibakar, dan dari 30.000 Huron, beberapa ribu dapat kabur dan terhindar menjadi korban genosida etnis.[333][334] Ned Blackhawk, dalam analisis perang antara Iroquois dan Huron, menyatakan bahwa Iroquois melakukan seluruh lima tindakan yang dideskripsikan dalam Konvensi Genosida 1948.[335] | |||||
| Penkalukan Kepulauan Banda oleh Belanda | Kepulauan Banda (kini Indonesia) | 1620 | 1621 | 3000[336] | 4000[336] |
| Penaklukan Kepulauan Banda oleh Belanda banyak dianggap terhitung sebagai genosida.[337][338] Setelah penduduk Kepulauan Banda menolak untuk menyepakati perjanjian untuk menjual pala khusus untuk VOC dengan pertukaran yang rendah, Jan Pieterszoon Coen memimpin kampanye untuk mendepopulasi kepulauan tersebut melalui kombinasi pembantaian dan kelaparan, dengan beberapa orang Banda diambil sebagai tahanan. Kebanyakan tenggelam saat berniat untuk kabur. VOC kemudian mengimpor orang-orang yang diperbudak untuk bekerja di penanaman mereka.[339][340] | 7001830000000000000♠ Sekitar 23% tewas atau kelaparan, 13% dibawa menjadi tahanan, 34% kabur, dan 30% tenggelam.[336] | ||||
| Genosida Taíno | Hispaniola | 1492 | 1514 | &&&&&&&&&&068000.&&&&&068.000[341] | &&&&&&&&&0968000.&&&&&0968.000[341] |
| Genosida Taíno merujuk kepada pemusnahan populasi asli Hispaniola karena kerja paksa dan eksploitasi oleh Spanyol. Andrés Reséndez menganggap bahwa meskipun penyakit menjadi faktornya, populasi penduduk asli akan melambung dengan cara yang sama seperti yang dilakukan orang Eropa pada Wabah Hitam jika mereka tak diperbudak di pertambangan emas dan perak pulau tersebut.[342][343] Menurut antropolog Jason Hickel, sepertiga tenaga kerja Arawak tewas setiap enam bulan akibat kerja paksa di pertambangan.[344] | 7001830000000000000♠ 68% sampai lebih dari 96% populasi Taíno tewas di bawah kekuasaan Spanyol.[341] | ||||
| Perang Salib Albigensian (Genosida Cathar) | Languedoc (kini Prancis) | 1209 | 1229 | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.200,000[345] | 0Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal..Kesalahan ekspresi: Karakter tanda baca "," tidak dikenal.1,000,000[346] |
| Perang Salib Albigensia adalah kampanye militer 20 tahun yang diinisiasikan oleh Paus Inosensius III untuk memusnahkan Katarisme, sebuah aliran Kristen, di Languedoc, Prancis selatan. Gereja Katolik Roma menganggap emreka sebagai bidaah dan memerintahkan agar mereka harus sepenuhnya dimusnahkan.[347] Raphael Lemkin menyebut Perang Salib Albigensia sebagai "salah satu kasus genosida paling menonjol dalam sejarah keagamaan".[348] Kurt Jonassohn dan Karin Solveig Björnson menyebutnya sebagai "genosida ideologi pertama."[349] | |||||
Lihat pula
- Pencatatan korban
- Demosida
- Penyangkalan genosida terhadap masyarakat adat
- Pembantaian genosidal
- Genosida terhadap masyarakat adat
- Genosida dalam sejarah
- Komisi Hamoodur Rahman
- Daftar konflik bersenjata yang sedang berlangsung
- Daftar perang berdasarkan jumlah korban tewas
Kampanye pemusnahan politik
Catatan
- ↑ Populasi Pigmi Timur berkurang sampai 90.000 orang setelah kampanye yang menewaskan 60.000 orang[59] yang menandakan penurunan sejumlah 40%
- 1 2 Total jumlah Serbia, Yahudi dan RAoma yang tewas. Tak termasuk Yahudi yang dikirim ke kamp-kamp pemusnahan Jerman.
- ↑ Meskipun pembersihan etnis dan pembantaian dimulai pada awal 1800an, terutama di bawah komando jenderal Tsaris Rusia Grigory Zass, deportasi massal, pembantaian massal dan operasi pemusnahan — kala kebanyakan kematian terjadi — dimulai pada 1864.
- ↑ Only the range of deaths caused by massacred
- ↑ The total population decline of the period overall
- ↑
- Genocide education scholar Thomas Keefe – "The preparation (Stage 7) for genocide, specifically the transfer of population that "Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part" as stated in Article II of the UNCPPCG is clear in the Trail of Tears and other deportations of Native American populations from land seized for the benefit of European-American populations."[290]
- Muscogee Nation Historic and Cultural Preservation Manager Rae Lynn Butler – "really was about extinguishing a race of people"; Archivist at the Cherokee Heritage Center Jerrid Miller – "The Trail of Tears was outright genocide".[291]
- Sociologist and historian Vahakn Dadrian lists the expulsion of the Cherokee as an example of utilitarian genocide, stating "the expulsion and decimation of the Cherokee Indians from the territories of the State of Georgia is symbolic of the pattern of perpetration inflicted upon the American Indian by Whites in North America."[292]
- Genocide scholar Adam Jones – "Forced relocations of Indian populations often took the form of genocidal death marches, most infamously the "Trails of Tears" of the Cherokee and Navajo nations, which killed between 20 and 40 per cent of the targeted populations en route. The barren "tribal reservations" to which survivors were consigned exacted their own grievous toll through malnutrition and disease."[293]
- Cherokee politician Bill John Baker – "this ruthless [Indian Removal Act] policy subjected 46,000 Indians—to a forced migration under punishing conditions […] amounted to genocide, the ethnic cleansing of men, women and children, motivated by racial hatred and greed, and carried out through sadism and violence."[294]
- Sociologist James V. Fenelon and historian Clifford E. Trafzer – "Instead the national government and its leaders have offered a systemic denial of genocide, the occurrence of which would be contrary to the principles of a democratic and just society. "Denial of massive death counts is common among those whose forefathers were the perpetrators of the genocide" (Stannard, 1992, p. 152) with motives of protecting "the moral reputations of those people and that country responsible," including some scholars. It took 50 years of scholarly debate for the academy to recognize well-documented genocides of the Indian removals in the 1830s, including the Cherokee Trail of Tears, as with other nations of the "Five Civilized" southeastern tribes."[295]
- ↑
- Political scientist Michael Rogin – "To face responsibility for specific killings might have led to efforts to stop it; to avoid individual deaths turned Indian removal into a theory of genocide."[297]
- Indigenous studies scholar Nicky Michael and historian Beverly Jean Smith – "Over one-fourth died on the forced death marches of the 1830s. By any United Nations standard, these actions can be equated with genocide and ethnic cleansing."[298]
- Historian Jim Piecuch argues that the Trail of Tears constitutes one tool in the genocide of Native Americans over the three centuries since the beginning of colonization in north America.[299]
- Political scientist Andrew R. Basso – "The Cherokee Trail of Tears should be understood within the context of colonial genocide in the Americas. This is yet another chapter of colonial forces acting against an indigenous group in order to secure rich and fertile lands, resources, and living spaces."[300]
- Political scientist Barbara Harff – "One of the most enduring and abhorrent problems of the world is genocide, which is neither particular to a specific race, class, or nation, nor rooted in any one ethnocentric view of the world. […] Often democratic institutions are cited as safeguards against mass excesses. In view of the treatment of Amerindians by agents of the U.S. government, this view is unwarranted. For example, the thousands of Cherokees who died during the Trail of Tears (Cherokee Indians were forced to march in 1838–1839 from Appalachia to Oklahoma) testify that even a democratic system may tum against its people."[301]
- Legal scholar Rennard Strickland – "There were, of course, great and tragic Indian massacres and bitter exoduses, illegal even under the laws of war. We know these acts of genocide by place names – Sand Creek, the Battle of Washita, Wounded Knee – and by their tragic poetic codes – the Trail of Tears, the Long Walk, the Cheyenne Autumn. But ... genocidal objectives have been carried out under color of law – in de Tocqueville's phrase, "legally, philanthropically, without shedding blood, and without violating a single great principle of morality in the eyes of the word." These were legally enacted policies whereby a way of life, a culture, was deliberately obliterated. As the great Indian orator Dragging Canoe concluded, "Whole Indian Nations have melted away like balls of snow in the sun leaving scarcely a name except as imperfectly recorded by their destroyers"."[302]
- Legal scholars Christopher Turner and Mary Ellen Turpel-Lafond reiterate Strickland's assessment.[303]
- Attorney Maria Conversa – "The theft of ancestral tribal lands, the genocide of tribal members, public hostility towards Native peoples, and irreversible oppression--these are the realities that every indigenous person has had to face because of colonization. By recognizing and respecting the Muscogee Creek Nation's authority to criminally sentence its own members, the United States Supreme Court could have taken a small step towards righting these wrongs."[304]
- Historian David Stannard and ethnic studies scholar Ward Churchill have both identified the trail of tears as part of the United States history of genocidal actions against indigenous nations.[305][306]
- Sociologist Benjamin P. Bowser, psychologist Carol O. Word, and Kate Shaw – "There was a pattern to Indian genocide. One-by-one, each Native state was defeated militarily; successive Native generations fought and were defeated as well. As settlers became more numerous and stronger militarily, Indians became fewer and weaker militarily. In one Indian nation after the other, resistance eventually collapsed due to the death toll from violence. Then, survivors were displaced from their ancestral lands, which had sustained them for generations. […] Starting in 1830, surviving Native people, mostly Cherokee, in the Eastern US were ordered by President Andrew Jackson to march up to two thousand miles and to cross the Mississippi River to settle in Oklahoma. Thousands died on the Trail of Tears. This pattern of defeat, displacement, and victimization repeated itself in the American West. From this history, Native Americans were victims of all five Lemkin specified genocidal acts."[307]
- Sociologist and psychologist Laurence French wrote that the trail of tears was at least a campaign of cultural genocide.[308]
- Cultural studies scholar Melissa Slocum – "Rarely is the conversation about the impact of genocide on today’s generations or the overall steps that lead to genocide. As well, most curricula in the education system, from kindergarten up through to college, does not discuss in detail American Indian genocide beyond possibly a quick one-day mention of the Cherokee Trail of Tears."[309]
- English and literary scholar Thir Bahadur Budhathoki – "On the basis of the basic concept of genocide as propounded by Rephael Lemkin, the definitions of the UN Convention and other genocide scholars, sociological perspective of genocide-modernity nexus and the philosophical understanding of such crime as an evil in its worst possible form, the fictional representation of the entire process of Cherokee removal including its antecedents and consequences represented in these novels, is genocidal in nature. However, the American government, that mostly represents the perpetrators of the process, and the Euro-American culture of the United States considered as the mainstream culture, have not acknowledged the Native American tragedy as genocide."[310]
- ↑ misalnya Perang Tiga Puluh Tahun (4,5 hingga 8 juta kematian), kejahatan perang Jepang (30 juta kematian), Teror Merah (50.000 hingga 200.000 kematian), Kekejaman di Negara Bebas Kongo (1,5 hingga 13 juta kematian), Pembersihan Besar-Besaran (0,7 hingga 1,2 juta kematian), Lompatan Jauh ke Depan dan kelaparan yang mengikutinya (15 hingga 55 juta kematian).[1]
- ↑ Menurut Kementerian Kesehatan Gaza dan Kantor Informasi Pemerintah,[2] yang sebelumnya dianggap layak oleh organisasi-organisasi independen dan berpengaruh.[3][4] Pada masa yang sama, setidaknya 700 orang Palestina tewas di Tepi Barat.[5]
- ↑ Memakai metode yang disebutkan dalam The Lancet,[6] Devi Sridhar, ketua kesehatan global di Universitas Edinburgh, menulis dalam editorial September 2024 bahwa "total korban tewas sejak konflik tersebut dimulai diperkirakan berjumlah sekitar 335.500 secara keseluruhan".[7]
- ↑ Persentase dihitung berdasarkan pada penghitungan rendah (54.600 kematian)[2] dan penghitungan tinggi (335.500 kematian)[7] dan membagi mereka menurut perkiraan populasi pra-perang Jalur Gaza sejumlah 2.375.259 orang, sebuah angka yang dipakai oleh The Lancet dalam perkiraan jumlah korban tewas mereka.[6]
- ↑ Quote: "To conclude: the Germans committed genocide against the Polish population. The very term genocide comes from the 1944 book of the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin, whose study of Nazi-occupied Europe focused on the German attack on the Poles. Not only did the Nazis seek ultimately to eliminate the Polish nation 'as such', but they engaged in each of the acts identified by the 1949 Genocide Convention as signifiers of the 'intent to destroy'"[188]
- ↑ "In the 1860s Russia killed 1.5 million Circassians, half of their population, and expelled the other half from their lands." Ahmed 2013, hlm. 357
- ↑ Dalam catatan perang, Wei Yuan menulis bahwa sekitar 40% rumah tangga Dzungar tewas akibat campak, 20% kabur ke Rusia atau Kekhanan Kazakh, dan 30% dibantai oleh tentara, tak meninggalkan yurt di kawasan berjarak sekitar ribuan mil Tiongkok kecuali orang-orang yang menyerah.[324][327][328] Clarke menulsi bahwa 80%, atau antara 480.000 dan 600.000 orang, tewas antara 1755 dan 1758 dalam apa yang "terhitung sebagai penghancuran penuh tak hanya negara Zunghar tetapi Zunghar sebagai bangsa."[324][329] Sejarawan Peter Perdue menunjukkan bahwa pemusnahan Dzungar adalah akibat dari kebijakan pemusnahan yang diluncurkan oleh Kaisar Qianlong.[324] Meskipun "penggunaan pembantaian" tersebut telah banyak dihiraukan oleh para cendekiawan modern,[324] Mark Levene, seorang sejarawan yang peminatan riset terkininya berfokus pada genosida, menyatakan bahwa pemusnahan Dzungar "dianggap menjadi genosida abad kedelapan yang sempurna".[330]
Referensi
- ↑ McKenna, Erin; Pratt, Scott L. (2015). American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present. Bloomsbury. hlm. 375.
- 1 2 "Reported impact snapshot – Gaza Strip (4 June 2025)". Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. 4 June 2025. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 5 June 2025.
- ↑ Prothero, Mitchell (25 January 2024). "Israeli Intelligence Has Deemed Hamas-Run Health Ministry's Death Toll Figures Generally Accurate". Vice News. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 3 March 2024.
- ↑ Huynh, Benjamin Q.; Chin, Elizabeth T.; Spiegel, Paul B. (6 December 2023). "No evidence of inflated mortality reporting from the Gaza Ministry of Health". The Lancet. 403 (10421): 23–24. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(23)02713-7. PMID 38070526.
- ↑ Siddiqui, Usaid; Najjar, Farah (20 September 2024). "Israel's war on Gaza updates: 'Netanyahu knows Americans can't stop him' – Here's what happened today". Al Jazeera. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 21 September 2024.
- 1 2 Khatib, Rasha; McKee, Martin; Yusuf, Salim (5 July 2024). "Counting the dead in Gaza: difficult but essential". The Lancet. 404 (10449). Elsevier BV: 237–238. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(24)01169-3. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 38976995.
Applying a conservative estimate of four indirect deaths per one direct death to the 37 396 deaths reported, it is not implausible to estimate that up to 186 000 or even more deaths could be attributable to the current conflict in Gaza. Using the 2022 Gaza Strip population estimate of 2 375 259, this would translate to 7.9% of the total population in the Gaza Strip.
- 1 2 Sridhar, Devi (5 September 2024). "Scientists are closing in on the true, horrifying scale of death and disease in Gaza". The Guardian. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 30 January 2025. Diakses tanggal 13 September 2024.
- ↑
- "Rights expert finds 'reasonable grounds' genocide is being committed in Gaza". UN News (dalam bahasa Inggris). United Nations. 26 March 2024. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 28 March 2025. Diakses tanggal 2 April 2025.
- "UN Special Committee finds Israel's warfare methods in Gaza consistent with genocide, including use of starvation as weapon of war". Kantor Komisaris Tinggi Hak Asasi Manusia Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (dalam bahasa Inggris). 14 November 2024. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 15 February 2025. Diakses tanggal 23 February 2025.
- "'It Is Important to Call a Genocide a Genocide,' Consider Suspending Israel's Credential as UN Member State, Experts Tell Palestinian Rights Committee". UN News. United Nations. 31 October 2024. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 5 November 2024.
- "UN experts accuse Israel of genocidal acts and sexual violence in Gaza". BBC News. 14 March 2025. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 15 March 2025.
- Extermination and Acts of Genocide [–] Israel Deliberately Depriving Palestinians in Gaza of Water (Report). Human Rights Watch. 19 December 2024. Diakses tanggal 20 January 2025.
Israeli authorities' and forces' actions to deprive the population of Gaza of access to water amount to acts of genocide under the Genocide Convention and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Specifically, their actions amount to deliberately inflicting conditions of life calculated to bring about the physical destruction of the Palestinian population in Gaza. Genocidal intent may also be inferred from Israeli authorities' and forces' continued actions to deprive Palestinians in Gaza of water, despite clear data and warnings from the United Nations since October and orders from the International Court of Justice calling for the provision of water since January, alongside Israeli authorities' statements, and therefore these acts may amount to the crime of genocide.
- ↑
- 1 2 Amnesty International report 2024, hlm. 13: "This report focuses on the Israeli authorities' policies and actions in Gaza as part of the military offensive they launched in the wake of the Hamas-led attacks on 7 October 2023 while situating them within the broader context of Israel's unlawful occupation, and system of apartheid against Palestinians in Gaza, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Israel. It assesses allegations of violations and crimes under international law by Israel in Gaza within the framework of genocide under international law, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to believe that Israel's conduct in Gaza following 7 October 2023 amounts to genocide."
- 1 2 "Gaza: UN experts call on international community to prevent genocide against the Palestinian people". Kantor Komisaris Tinggi Hak Asasi Manusia Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa. 16 November 2023. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 24 December 2023. Diakses tanggal 22 December 2023.
Grave violations committed by Israel against Palestinians in the aftermath of 7 October, particularly in Gaza, point to a genocide in the making, UN experts said today. They illustrated evidence of increasing genocidal incitement, overt intent to "destroy the Palestinian people under occupation", loud calls for a 'second Nakba' in Gaza and the rest of the occupied Palestinian territory, and the use of powerful weaponry with inherently indiscriminate impacts, resulting in a colossal death toll and destruction of life-sustaining infrastructure.
- ↑ Francesca Albanese (26 Maret 2024), Anatomy of a Genocide – Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967, Francesca Albanese (PDF) (dalam bahasa Inggris), Kantor Komisaris Tinggi Hak Asasi Manusia Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa, Wikidata Q125152282, diarsipkan (PDF) dari versi aslinya tanggal 25 Maret 2024
- ↑
- Burga 2023
- Soni, S. (December 2023). "Gaza and international law: The global obligation to protect life and health". South African Journal of Bioethics and Law. 16 (3): 80–81. doi:10.7196/SAJBL.2023.v16i3.1764.
- "International Expert Statement on Israeli State Crime". statecrime.org. International State Crime Initiative. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 6 January 2024. Diakses tanggal 4 January 2024.
- Corder 2024
- Segal, Raz (13 October 2023). "A Textbook Case of Genocide" (dalam bahasa Inggris). Jewish Currents. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 25 November 2023. Diakses tanggal 19 October 2023.
- Houghtaling, Ellie Quinlan (31 October 2023). "He Went There: Top U.N. Official Resigns Citing "Genocide" in Gaza". The New Republic. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 13 November 2023.
Once again, we are seeing a genocide unfolding before our eyes, and the Organization that we serve appears powerless to stop it.
- "International Expert Statement on Israeli State Crime". statecrime.org. International State Crime Initiative. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 6 January 2024. Diakses tanggal 4 January 2024.
the Israeli state is employing its extensive and advanced military capacity to inflict violence on Palestinian peoples on such a scale that it is accurate to frame it as the annihilation phase of genocide.
- El-Affendi, Abdelwahab (18 January 2024). "The Futility of Genocide Studies After Gaza". Journal of Genocide Research: 1–7. doi:10.1080/14623528.2024.2305525.
- Üngör, Uğur Ümit (26 January 2024). "Screaming, Silence, and Mass Violence in Israel/Palestine". Journal of Genocide Research: 1–9. doi:10.1080/14623528.2024.2309709.
- Samudzi, Zoé (18 January 2024). ""We are Fighting Nazis": Genocidal Fashionings of Gaza(ns) After 7 October". Journal of Genocide Research: 1–9. doi:10.1080/14623528.2024.2305524.
- Levene, Mark (21 January 2024). "Gaza 2023: Words Matter, Lives Matter More" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research (Forum: Israel–Palestine: Atrocity Crimes and the Crisis of Holocaust and Genocide Studies): 1–7. doi:10.1080/14623528.2024.2301866. eISSN 1469-9494. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 4 July 2024.
- Shaw, Martin (3 January 2024). "Inescapably Genocidal". Journal of Genocide Research: 1–5. doi:10.1080/14623528.2023.2300555. S2CID 266778978.
- Semerdjian 2024, hlm. 1–6
- Fassin, Didier (5 February 2024). "The Rhetoric of Denial: Contribution to an Archive of the Debate about Mass Violence in Gaza". Journal of Genocide Research: 1–7. doi:10.1080/14623528.2024.2308941.
- Gessen, Masha (7 February 2024). "The Limits of Accusing Israel of Genocide". The New Yorker. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 7 February 2024.
Trachtenberg testified to a consensus opinion among historians of genocide that what is happening in Gaza can indeed be called a genocide, largely because the intent to cause death on a massive scale has been so clear in the statements of Israeli officials. "We are watching the genocide unfold as we speak," he said. "We are in this incredibly unique position where we can intervene to stop it, using the mechanisms of international law that are available to us."
- Lakhani, Nina (27 February 2024). "Israel is deliberately starving Palestinians, UN rights expert says". The Guardian. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 28 February 2024.
- Segal, Raz; Daniele, Luigi (5 March 2024). "Gaza as Twilight of Israel Exceptionalism: Holocaust and Genocide Studies from Unprecedented Crisis to Unprecedented Change". Journal of Genocide Research: 1–10. doi:10.1080/14623528.2024.2325804.
- "Countries at UN rally behind expert who accused Israel of 'genocide'". France 24. 26 March 2024. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 27 March 2024.
- Whyte, Jessica (17 April 2024). "A 'Tragic Humanitarian Crisis': Israel's Weaponization of Starvation and the Question of Intent". Journal of Genocide Research: 1–15. doi:10.1080/14623528.2024.2339637.
- Adler, Nils; Quillen, Stephen (15 May 2024). "'Ethnic cleansing a terrible crime, but genocide even worse: Ilan Pappe". Al Jazeera. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 22 May 2024. Diakses tanggal 21 May 2024.
- Sultany, Nimer (9 May 2024). "A Threshold Crossed: On Genocidal Intent and the Duty to Prevent Genocide in Palestine". Journal of Genocide Research: 1–26. doi:10.1080/14623528.2024.2351261.
- Jamshidi, Maryam (6 May 2024). "Genocide and Resistance in Palestine under Law's Shadow". Journal of Genocide Research: 1–35. doi:10.1080/14623528.2024.2348377.
- Di-Capua, Yoav (5 June 2024). "Genocidal Mirroring in Israel/Palestine". Journal of Genocide Research: 1–15. doi:10.1080/14623528.2024.2361978.
- Zakaria, Fareed (26 May 2024). "On GPS: The charges against Israel". CNN. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 17 July 2024. Diakses tanggal 28 May 2024.
- "International laws against genocide exist: so why don't they work?" (dalam bahasa Inggris). Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 28 June 2024. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 14 July 2024. Diakses tanggal 15 July 2024.
- Feroz, Elias (11 July 2024). "Israeli Historian: This Is Exactly What Genocide Looks Like". Jacobin. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 23 July 2024. Diakses tanggal 3 August 2024.
- Bartov, Omer (13 August 2024). "As a former IDF soldier and historian of genocide, I was deeply disturbed by my recent visit to Israel". The Guardian (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 14 August 2024. Diakses tanggal 13 August 2024.
- Narea, Nicole (25 October 2024). "Is Israel committing genocide? Reexamining the question, a year later". Vox. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 27 October 2024. Diakses tanggal 28 October 2024.
- Quigley, John (3 July 2024). "The Lancet and Genocide By 'Slow Death' in Gaza". Arab Center Washington DC (dalam bahasa American English). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 13 July 2024. Diakses tanggal 13 July 2024.
- ↑ "Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and Israel- Reported Humanitarian Impact Key Figures – Day 163" (PDF). UNISPAL. United Nations. 18 March 2024. Diarsipkan (PDF) dari versi aslinya tanggal 22 March 2024. Diakses tanggal 21 March 2024.
- ↑ Knell, Yolanda (29 February 2024). "More than 30,000 killed in Gaza, Hamas-run health ministry says". BBC News. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 29 February 2024.
- ↑ Kuperman, Alan J. (16 April 2024). "Civilian deaths in Gaza rival those of Darfur – which the US called a 'genocide'". The Guardian. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 16 April 2024.
- ↑ "More than 25,000 women and children killed in Gaza: US defence secretary". Al Jazeera. 1 March 2024. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 20 March 2024. Diakses tanggal 21 March 2024.
- ↑ Graham-Harrison, Emma (25 February 2024). "Gaza death toll set to pass 30,000, as Israel prepares assault on Rafah". The Guardian. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 27 February 2024.
- ↑ "Journalist casualties in the Israel-Gaza war". Committee to Protect Journalists (dalam bahasa American English). 22 January 2025.
- ↑ Fayyad, Huthifa (17 September 2024). "Nearly 1,000 Palestinian health workers killed by Israeli forces in Gaza named". Middle East Eye. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 16 January 2025.
- ↑ Massoud, Bassam; Fick, Maggie (23 December 2023). "Gaza death toll: why counting the dead has become a daily struggle". Reuters. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 14 January 2024.
- ↑ "Gaza death toll reaches 20,000 as UN ceasefire vote postponed". EuroNews. 21 December 2023. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 22 December 2023. Diakses tanggal 22 December 2023.
- ↑ "Gaza war 'most dangerous ever' for journalists, says rights group". Reuters. 21 December 2023. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 22 December 2023.
- ↑ "10,000 people feared buried under the rubble in Gaza". United Nations in Palestine. 3 May 2024. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 5 May 2024. Diakses tanggal 5 May 2024.
- ↑ Bennett, James (14 December 2017). "Rohingya death toll likely above 10,000, MSF says amid exodus". ABC. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 4 April 2023. Diakses tanggal 25 August 2018.
- ↑ Barron, Laignee (8 March 2018). "More Than 43,000 Rohingya Parents May Be Missing. Experts Fear They Are Dead". Time. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 13 February 2023. Diakses tanggal 25 August 2018.
- ↑
- R. C. (23 May 2018). "The Rohingya crisis bears all the hallmarks of a genocide". The Economist. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 26 July 2023. Diakses tanggal 25 August 2018.
- Siazon, Camilla (8 May 2018). "The Rohingya Crisis and the Meaning of Genocide". Council on Foreign Relations. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 5 April 2023. Diakses tanggal 25 August 2018.
- "UN official says Rohingya crisis has 'hallmarks of genocide'". Associated Press News. 1 February 2018. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 5 April 2023. Diakses tanggal 25 August 2018.
- Ibrahim, Azeem (23 October 2017). "There's only one conclusion on the Rohingya in Myanmar: It's genocide". CNN. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 4 June 2023. Diakses tanggal 25 August 2018.
- ↑ Hunt, Katie (13 November 2017). "Rohingya crisis: How we got here". CNN. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 13 November 2017. Diakses tanggal 3 February 2021.
- ↑ Sengupta, Somini; Fountain, Henry (14 March 2018). "The Biggest Refugee Camp Braces for Rain: 'This Is Going to Be a Catastrophe'; More than half a million Rohingya refugees face looming disaster from floods and landslides..." The New York Times. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 24 February 2021. Diakses tanggal 26 May 2020.
- ↑ "Myanmar Rohingya: What you need to know about the crisis". BBC. 24 April 2018. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 22 October 2023. Diakses tanggal 25 August 2018.
- ↑
- Finley, Joanne (2020). "Why Scholars and Activists Increasingly Fear a Uyghur Genocide in Xinjiang". Journal of Genocide Research. 23 (3). Newcastle University: 348–370. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1848109. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 236962241.
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- Piotrowicz, Ryszard (14 July 2020). "Legal expert: forced birth control of Uighur women is genocide – can China be put on trial?". The Conversation. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 17 December 2023.
- Tobin, David (22 November 2021). "Genocidal processes: social death in Xinjiang". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 45 (16): 93–121. doi:10.1080/01419870.2021.2001556.
- "Chinese Persecution of the Uyghurs". Museum Memorial Holokaus Amerika Serikat. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 2021. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 17 December 2024.
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- "China Suppression Of Uighur Minorities Meets U.N. Definition Of Genocide, Report Says". National Public Radio. 4 July 2020. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 19 October 2020. Diakses tanggal 20 October 2020.
- ↑ Break Their Lineage, Break Their Roots (Report). Human Rights Watch. 19 April 2021. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 6 January 2025. Diakses tanggal 19 April 2021.
- ↑ Congressional Research Service (18 June 2019). "Uyghurs in China" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Diarsipkan (PDF) dari versi aslinya tanggal 18 December 2020. Diakses tanggal 2 December 2019.
- ↑ Gunter, Joel (9 December 2021). "China committed genocide against Uyghurs, independent tribunal rules". BBC News. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 7 March 2025.
- ↑ "China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization". Associated Press News. 28 June 2020. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 16 December 2020. Diakses tanggal 18 December 2020.
- ↑ "Number of civilian casualties in Ukraine during Russia's invasion verified by OHCHR". Statista.
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- ↑
- Buncombe, Andrew (5 April 2022). "Killings in Ukraine amount to genocide, Holocaust expert says". The Independent. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 9 April 2022. Diakses tanggal 12 April 2022.
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- Snyder, Timothy D. (8 April 2022). "Russia's genocide handbook". Substack. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 8 April 2022. Diakses tanggal 9 April 2022.
- Shaw, Martin (8 March 2023). "Russia's Genocidal War in Ukraine: Radicalization and Social Destruction". Journal of Genocide Research. 25 (3–4): 352–370. doi:10.1080/14623528.2023.2185372. hdl:10230/60137.
- Etkind, Alexander (11 May 2022). "Ukraine, Russia, and Genocide of Minor Differences". Journal of Genocide Research. 25 (3–4): 384–402. doi:10.1080/14623528.2022.2082911.
- Mälksoo, Maria (7 June 2022). "The Postcolonial Moment in Russia's War Against Ukraine". Journal of Genocide Research. 25 (3–4): 471–481. doi:10.1080/14623528.2022.2074947.
- ↑ Wright, George (13 April 2022). "Ukraine war: Is Russia committing genocide?". BBC News. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 22 April 2022. Diakses tanggal 23 April 2022.
- ↑ "An Independent Legal Analysis of the Russian Federations Breaches of the Genocide Convention in Ukraine and the Duty to Prevent". New Lines Institute (dalam bahasa Inggris). 27 May 2022. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 16 June 2022. Diakses tanggal 27 May 2022.
- ↑ "Situation in Ukraine: ICC judges issue arrest warrants against Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin and Maria Alekseyevna Lvova-Belova". Mahkamah Pidana Internasional (dalam bahasa Inggris). 17 March 2023. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 17 March 2023. Diakses tanggal 18 March 2023.
- ↑ "Deporting Ukrainian children and "Russifying" them is jeopardizing the future of Ukraine". Le Monde. 5 August 2022. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 13 September 2023. Diakses tanggal 13 October 2022.
- ↑ Spencer, Richard (14 October 2014). "Isil carried out massacres and mass sexual enslavement of Yazidis, UN confirms". The Daily Telegraph (dalam bahasa Inggris (Britania)). ISSN 0307-1235. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 12 January 2022. Diakses tanggal 13 October 2019.
- ↑ Taylor, Lin (9 May 2017). "Nearly 10,000 Yazidis killed, kidnapped by Islamic State in 2014, study finds" (dalam bahasa American English). Reuters. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 30 May 2023. Diakses tanggal 3 May 2021.
- ↑ Labott, Elise; Kopan, Tal (17 March 2016). "John Kerry: ISIS responsible for genocide". CNN. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 17 March 2016. Diakses tanggal 17 March 2016.
- ↑ "UN accuses the 'Islamic State' in the genocide of the Yazidis". BBC Russian Service/BBC (dalam bahasa Rusia). 19 March 2015. Diakses tanggal 16 April 2015.
- ↑ "The UN has blamed 'Islamic State' in the genocide of the Yazidis". Радио Свобода. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 19 March 2015. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 10 July 2015. Diakses tanggal 16 April 2015.
- ↑ Callimachi, Rukmini (16 August 2018). "Turkish Airstrike in Iraqi Territory Kills a Kurdish Militant Leader". The New York Times. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 21 October 2018.
- ↑ "UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria: ISIS is committing genocide against the Yazidis". United Nations – Human Rights – Office of the High Commissioner. 16 June 2016. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 29 September 2021.
- ↑ HRC (2016). They came to destroy: ISIS Crimes Against the Yazidis (PDF). Human Rights Council Thirty-second session Agenda item 4. hlm. 8–9, 21, 36. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 28 November 2020.
- ↑ "Study: Nearly 10,000 Yazidis Killed, Kidnapped by Islamic State in 2014" (dalam bahasa Inggris). Voice of America. Reuters. 9 May 2017. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 8 August 2024.
- ↑ "ISIS Terror: One Yazidi's Battle to Chronicle the Death of a People". NBC News. 23 November 2015. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 16 March 2016. Diakses tanggal 17 March 2016.
- ↑ Tagay, Sefik; Ayhan, Dogan; Catani, Claudia; Schnyder, Ulrich; Teufel, Martin (2017). "The 2014 Yazidi genocide and its effect on Yazidi diaspora". The Lancet. 390 (10106): 1946. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32701-0. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 29115224. S2CID 40913754.
- ↑ Guha-Sapir, Debarati; Degomme, Olivier (2005). "Darfur: counting the deaths (2). What are the trends?". Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. hdl:2078.1/179717.
- ↑ Reeves, Eric (28 April 2006). "Quantifying Genocide in Darfur". Sudan – Research, Analysis, and Advocacy. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 12 January 2024.
- 1 2 Williams 2012, hlm. 192.
- ↑ Elhag 2014, hlm. 210.
- ↑ "Darfur". encyclopedia.ushmm.org (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2 August 2023.
- 1 2 3 Seshadri, Raja (7 November 2005). "Pygmies in the Congo Basin and Conflict". Case Study 163. The Inventory of Conflict & Environment, American University. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 4 March 2016. Diakses tanggal 21 July 2012.
During their offensive against the civilian population of the Ituri region, the rebel groups left more than 60,000 dead and over 100,000 displaced. […] Fatality Level of Dispute (military and civilian fatalities): 70,000 estimated
- 1 2 Penketh, Anne (7 July 2004). "Extermination of the pygmies". The Independent. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 21 December 2018. Diakses tanggal 21 December 2018.
- 1 2 Lemarchand, René (2011). Forgotten Genocides: Oblivion, Denial, and Memory (dalam bahasa Inggris). University of Pennsylvania Press. hlm. 21. ISBN 978-0-8122-4335-2.
- 1 2 Report of the Mapping Exercise Documenting the Most Serious Violations of Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law Committed Within the Territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Between March 1993 and June 2003 (PDF) (Report). Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. August 2010. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 17 February 2024.
- ↑ Leaning, Jennifer; Sollom, Richard; Austin, Kathi (1996). "Investigations in Eastern Congo and Western Rwanda". Physicians for Human Rights.
- ↑ Ezimet, Kisangani (2000). "The Massacre of Refugees in Congo: A Case of UN Peacekeeping Failure and International Law". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 38 (2). Cambridge University Press: 163–202. doi:10.1017/S0022278X0000330X. JSTOR 161648. S2CID 154818651.
- 1 2 3 4 McDoom, Omar Shahabudin (2020). "Contested Counting: Toward a Rigorous Estimate of the Death Toll in the Rwandan Genocide" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 83–93. doi:10.1080/14623528.2019.1703252. S2CID 214032255.
I have estimated between 491,000 and 522,000 Tutsi, nearly two thirds of Rwanda's pre-genocide Tutsi population, were killed between 6 April and 19 July 1994. I calculated this death toll by subtracting my estimate of between 278,000 and 309,000 Tutsi survivors from my estimate of a baseline Tutsi population of almost exactly 800,000, or 10.8% of the overall population, on the eve of the genocide.
- 1 2 Guichaoua, André (2 January 2020). "Counting the Rwandan Victims of War and Genocide: Concluding Reflections". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 125–141. doi:10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 213471539. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 17 February 2022. Diakses tanggal 27 May 2021.
- ↑ "Commemoration of International Day of Reflection on the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda – Message of the UNOV/ UNODC Director-General/ Executive Director". Kantor Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa Urusan Narkoba dan Kejahatan (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 7 July 2022. Diakses tanggal 18 January 2021.
- 1 2 Meierhenrich, Jens (2020). "How Many Victims Were There in the Rwandan Genocide? A Statistical Debate". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 72–82. doi:10.1080/14623528.2019.1709611. S2CID 213046710.
Despite the various methodological disagreements among them, none of the scholars who participated in this forum gives credence to the official figure of 1,074,107 victims... Given the rigour of the various quantitative methodologies involved, this forum's overarching finding that the death toll of 1994 is nowhere near the one-million-mark is – scientifically speaking – incontrovertible.
- ↑ Reydams, Luc (2020). "'More than a million': the politics of accounting for the dead of the Rwandan genocide". Review of African Political Economy. 48 (168): 235–256. doi:10.1080/03056244.2020.1796320. S2CID 225356374.
The government eventually settled on 'more than a million', a claim which few outside Rwanda have taken seriously.
- ↑ McDoom, Omar (2020). "Contested Counting: Toward a Rigorous Estimate of the Death Toll in the Rwandan Genocide". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 83–93. doi:10.1080/14623528.2019.1703252. S2CID 214032255. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 31 March 2022. Diakses tanggal 31 March 2022.
In comparison with estimates at the higher and lower ends, my estimate is significantly lower than the Government of Rwanda's genocide census figure of 1,006,031 Tutsi killed. I believe this number is not credible.
- 1 2 Calic, Marie–Janine (2012). "Ethnic Cleansing and War Crimes, 1991–1995". Dalam Ingrao, Charles W.; Emmert, Thomas A. (ed.). Confronting the Yugoslav Controversies: A Scholars' Initiative. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press. hlm. 139–40. ISBN 978-1-55753-617-4 – via Google Buku. Footnotes in source identify numbers as June 2012.
- ↑ Irwin 2012.
- ↑ Gutman 1993.
- ↑ Thackrah 2008, hlm. 81–82.
- ↑ "Serbian MPs offer apology for Srebrenica massacre". BBC News. 31 March 2010. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 7 June 2023. Diakses tanggal 13 August 2016.
- ↑ Zwierzchowski, Jan; Tabeau, Ewa (1 February 2010). "The 1992–95 War in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Census-Based Multiple System Estimation of Casualties' Undercount" (PDF). Conference Paper for the International Research Workshop on 'The Global Costs of Conflict'. The Households in Conflict Network (HiCN) and The German Institute for Economic Research (DIW Berlin) 1–2 February 2010, Berlin: 15.
- ↑
- Straus, Scott (24 March 2015). Making and Unmaking Nations: The Origins and Dynamics of Genocide in Contemporary Africa (dalam bahasa Inggris). Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801455674 – via Google Buku.
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- ↑ Jones, Adam (22 January 2017). Genocide, war crimes and the West: history and complicity. Zed Books. ISBN 9781842771914 – via Google Buku.
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- 1 2 3 Mburu, Chris; United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights; United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country Office (1 January 2002). Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia) – via Google Buku.
- ↑ Ingiriis, Mohamed Haji (2 July 2016). ""We Swallowed the State as the State Swallowed Us": The Genesis, Genealogies, and Geographies of Genocides in Somalia". African Security. 9 (3): 237–58. doi:10.1080/19392206.2016.1208475. ISSN 1939-2206. S2CID 148145948.
- ↑ Mullin, Chris (1 October 2010). A View From The Foothills: The Diaries of Chris Mullin. Profile Books. ISBN 978-1847651860 – via Google Buku.
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- ↑ Tekle, Amare (1 January 1994). Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation. The Red Sea Press. ISBN 9780932415974 – via Google Buku.
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- ↑ Press, Robert M. (1 January 1999). The New Africa: Dispatches from a Changing Continent. University Press of Florida. ISBN 9780813017044 – via Google Buku.
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- ↑ "The Crimes of Saddam Hussein – 1988 The Anfal Campaign". PBS Frontline. Public Broadcasting Service.
- ↑ Hiltermann 2008, Victims.
- ↑ Kirmanj & Rafaat 2021, hlm. 163.
- ↑ Beeston, Richard (18 January 2010). "Halabja, the massacre the West tried to ignore". The Times. Diakses tanggal 28 August 2013.[pranala nonaktif]
- ↑ "Is Swedish neutrality over?". Pravda. 11 December 2012. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 18 December 2019. Diakses tanggal 24 April 2019.
- ↑ "Historic Debate Secures Parliamentary Recognition of the Kurdish Genocide". HuffPost. March 2013. Diakses tanggal 31 August 2013.
- ↑ "South Korea recognizes Kurdish genocide". 13 June 2013. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 26 April 2015. Diakses tanggal 26 April 2015.
- ↑ Denton, Herbert H. (June 21, 1983). "Lebanese Inquiry Said to Blame Israel for Massacre in Camps". The Washington Post. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal August 28, 2017. Diakses tanggal February 4, 2025.
The inquiry reportedly determined that there had been 460 victims of the 48-hour massacre and lists the names of 269 Palestinians, 119 Lebanese, 11 Syrians, 32 Pakistanis or Iranians, two Egyptians, two Algerians and 25 unidentified persons.
- ↑ Kapeliouk, Amnon (1984). Jahshan, Khalil (ed.). Sabra & Shatila: Inquiry Into a Massacre. Association of Arab-American University Graduates. ISBN 0937694630.
- ↑
- Fisk, Robert (2001). Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War. Oxford University Press. hlm. 382–383. ISBN 978-0192801302.
- Quandt, William B. (2001). Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967. University of California Press. hlm. 266. ISBN 978-0520246317.
- Alpher, Yossi (2015). Periphery: Israel's Search for Middle East Allies. Rowman & Littlefield. hlm. 48. ISBN 978-1442231016.
- Gonzalez, Nathan (2013). The Sunni-Shia Conflict: Understanding Sectarian Violence in the Middle East. Nortia Media Ltd. hlm. 113. ISBN 978-0-9842252-1-7.
- ↑ "U.N. General Assembly, Resolution 37/123, adopted between 16 and 20 December 1982" (PDF). United Nations. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 29 April 2012. Diakses tanggal 4 January 2010.
- ↑ MacBride, Seán; Asmal, A. K.; Bercusson, B.; Falk, R. A.; de la Pradelle, G.; Wild, S. (1983). Israel in Lebanon: The Report of International Commission to enquire into reported violations of International Law by Israel during its invasion of the Lebanon. London: Ithaca Press. hlm. 191–192. ISBN 0-903729-96-2.
- ↑ Sabra and Shatila: A genocide for which the criminal has not been held accountable (PDF) (Report). Palestinian Return Centre. 2021. Diakses tanggal 15 April 2024.
- ↑ Rashed, Haifa; Short, Damien; Docker, John (2014). "Nakba Memoricide: Genocide Studies and the Zionist/Israeli Genocide of Palestine". Holy Land Studies (dalam bahasa Inggris). 13 (1). Edinburgh University Press: 1–23. doi:10.3366/hls.2014.0076. ISSN 1474-9475.
- ↑ "Mapping Project 1995–Present". Documentation Center of Cambodia (DC-Cam). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 15 December 2023.
- ↑ "Welcome". Genocide Studies Program, Universitas Yale. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 18 February 2024.
- ↑ Heuveline 2001.
- ↑ Shawcross 1985, hlm. 115–116.
- ↑ Frey 2009, hlm. 83.
- ↑ Etcheson 2005, hlm. 119; Heuveline 1998, hlm. 49–65; Terry 2002, hlm. 116; Heuveline 2001
- ↑ The CGP, 1994–2008 Cambodian Genosida Program, Universitas Yale.
- ↑ DeMello 2013, hlm. 86.
- ↑ "Mapping of mass graves". Documentation Center of Cambodia. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 15 December 2023.
- ↑ Kiernan, Ben (2019). "Genocidal targeting: Two groups of victims in Pol Pot's Cambodia". Dalam Bushnell, P. Timothy; Shlapentokh, Vladimir; Vanderpool, Christopher; Sundram, Jeyaratnam (ed.). State Organized Terror: The Case Of Violent Internal Repression (dalam bahasa Inggris). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-31305-5.
- ↑ Ellis-Petersen, Hannah (16 November 2018). "Khmer Rouge leaders found guilty of genocide in Cambodia's 'Nuremberg' moment". The Guardian (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 15 January 2024. Diakses tanggal 25 November 2020.
- ↑ Etcheson 2005, hlm. 119.
- ↑ Heuveline 1998.
- ↑ Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/− 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/− 1,000) were either killed or disappeared, and that approximately 84,000 (+/− 11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically-based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound, however, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings.
* This estimates comes from taking the minimum killed violently applying the 70% violent death responsibility given to Indonesian military combined with the minimum starved.
"Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report" (PDF)."The CAVR Report". Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 13 May 2012. - ↑ "Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report". cavr-timorleste.org. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 13 May 2012. Diakses tanggal 16 April 2018.
- ↑ Payaslian, Simon. "20th Century Genocides". Oxford bibliographies. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 28 May 2023.
- ↑ "Genocide Studies Program: East Timor". Universitas Yale. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 26 March 2022.
- ↑ "Chega! The CAVR Report". Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 13 May 2012.
- 1 2 Dummett, Mark (16 December 2011). "How one newspaper report changed world history". BBC News (dalam bahasa Inggris (Britania)). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 16 June 2023. Diakses tanggal 4 August 2020.
- ↑ While the official Pakistani government report (Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 1974) estimated that the Pakistani army was responsible for 26,000 killings in total, other sources have proposed various estimates ranging between 200,000 and 3 million. Indian Professor Sarmila Bose recently expressed the view that a truly impartial study has never been done, while Bangladeshi ambassador Shamsher M. Chowdhury has suggested that a joint Pakistan-Bangladeshi commission be formed to properly investigate the event.
Chowdury, Bose comments – Dawn Newspapers Online.
Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the 20th Century: Bangladesh – Matthew White's website. - ↑ Jahan 2013, hlm. 256.
- ↑ Bass 2013a, hlm. 198:"The Nixon administration had ample evidence not just of the scale of the massacres, but also of their ethnic targeting of the Hindu minority—what Blood had condemned as genocide. This was common knowledge throughout the Nixon administration."
- ↑ Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 1974.
- ↑ "Bangladesh". Museum Memorial Holokaus Amerika Serikat (dalam bahasa American English). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 4 July 2024. Diakses tanggal 16 October 2023.
- ↑ Rummel, R.J. (January 1997). Death By Government. Routledge. hlm. 331. ISBN 1560009276.
The human death toll over only 267 days was incredible. Just to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics published in Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee, the Pakistani army killed 100,000 Bengalis in Dacca, 150,000 in Khulna, 75,000 in Jessore, 95,000 in Comilla, and 100,000 in Chittagong. For eighteen districts the total is 1,247,000 killed. This was an incomplete toll, and to this day no one really knows the final toll. Some estimates of the democide (i.e. Rummel's 'death by government') are much lower—one is of 300,000 dead—but most range from 1 million to 3 million. ... The Pakistani army and allied paramilitary groups killed about one out of every sixty-one people in Pakistan overall; one out of every twenty-five Bengalis, Hindus, and others in East Pakistan. If the rate of killing for all of Pakistan is annualised over the years the Yahya martial law regime was in power (March 1969 to December 1971), then this one regime was more lethal than that of the Soviet Union, China under the communists, or Japan under the military (even through World War II).
- ↑ Namely the 83% of the "fully identified" 42,275 civilians killed by human rights violations during the Guatemalan Civil War. See CEH 1999, hlm. 17, and "Press Briefing: Press conference by members of the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission". United Nations. 1 March 1999. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 14 November 2023. Diakses tanggal 13 August 2016.
- ↑ Applying the same proportion as for the fully identified victims to the estimated total amount of person killed or disappeared during the Guatemalan civil war (at least &&&&&&&&&0200000.&&&&&0200.000). See CEH 1999, hlm. 17.
- ↑ "Press Briefing: Press conference by members of the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission". United Nations. 1 March 1999. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 14 November 2023. Diakses tanggal 13 August 2016.
- ↑ CEH 1999.
- ↑ Malkin, Elisabeth (16 May 2013). "Trial on Guatemalan Civil War Carnage Leaves Out U.S. Role". The New York Times. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 24 June 2024. Diakses tanggal 7 July 2023.
The U.S. played a very powerful and direct role in the life of this institution, the army, that went on to commit genocide
- ↑ Bevins, Vincent (2020). The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World. PublicAffairs. hlm. 225–228. ISBN 978-1541742406.
- ↑ "Group says files show U.S. knew of Guatemala abuses". Daily News. New York. Associated Press. 19 March 2009. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 30 October 2016. Diakses tanggal 29 October 2016.
- ↑ Blakeley, Ruth (2009). State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South. Routledge. hlm. 91–94. ISBN 978-0415686174.
- ↑ CEH 1999, hlm. 20.
- ↑ Foster, Lynn V. (2002). Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World. Oxford University Press. hlm. 84. ISBN 978-0-8160-4148-0.
- ↑ CEH 1999, hlm. 23.
- ↑ Veerasingham, Ramanan (11 December 2013). "Sri Lanka guilty of genocide against Eelam Tamils with UK, US complicity: PPT". Journalists for Democracy in Sri Lanka (JDS). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 3 December 2023. Diakses tanggal 7 May 2024.
- ↑
- Fernando 2014, hlm. 28–35
- Kingsbury, Damien (2012). Sri Lanka and the Responsibility to Protect: Politics, Ethnicity and Genocide. Routledge. hlm. 82–93. ISBN 978-0-415-58884-3.
- Short 2016, hlm. 93–126
- Harman, William (1 July 2021). "Dying to be Remembered: Tamil Warriors' Desecrated Burial Plots (Tuyilum Illam) in Sri Lanka's Civil War". Nidan: International Journal for Indian Studies. 6 (1): 66–87. doi:10.36886/nidan.2021.6.1.5.
- ↑ MacDermot, Niall, ed. (December 1983). "THE REVIEW" (PDF). ICJ Review (32). International Commission of Jurists: 24.
- ↑ Pohl, J. Otto (June 2000). "Stalin's genocide against the "Repressed Peoples"". Journal of Genocide Research. 2 (2): 267–293. doi:10.1080/713677598.
- ↑ Grieb 2014, hlm. 930.
- ↑ Werth 2004, hlm. 73.
- ↑ Stephen Wheatcroft. "The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45" (PDF). Sovietinfo.tripod.com. Diakses tanggal 17 February 2015.
- ↑ Philip Boobbyer (2000). The Stalin Era. Psychology Press. hlm. 130. ISBN 978-0-415-18298-0.
- ↑ "The Soviet Massive Deportations - A Chronology | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance - Réseau de recherche". www.sciencespo.fr (dalam bahasa Prancis). 18 April 2019. Diakses tanggal 20 July 2025.
- ↑ "The Massive Deportation of the Chechen People: How and why Chechens were Deported | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance - Réseau de recherche". www.sciencespo.fr (dalam bahasa Prancis). 29 April 2019. Diakses tanggal 20 July 2025.
- ↑ Schmaltz, Eric J.; Sinner, Samuel D. (September 2002). ""You will die under ruins and snow": The Soviet repression of Russian Germans as a case study of successful genocide". Journal of Genocide Research. 4 (3): 327–356. doi:10.1080/14623520220151943.
- ↑ Buckley, Ruble & Hofmann 2008, hlm. 204.
- ↑ Pohl 2022, hlm. 8.
- ↑ Legters 1992, hlm. 104; Fisher 2014, hlm. 150; Allworth 1998, hlm. 216
- ↑ Garrard, John (1993-07-07). World War 2 and the Soviet People: Selected Papers from the Fourth World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies, Harrogate, 1990 (dalam bahasa Inggris). Springer. hlm. 168. ISBN 978-1-349-22796-9.
- ↑ Buckley, Cynthia J.; Ruble, Blair A.; Hofmann, Erin Trouth (2008). Migration, Homeland, and Belonging in Eurasia. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. hlm. 207. ISBN 9780801890758.
- ↑ Allworth, Edward (1998). The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland: Studies and Documents. Durham: Duke University Press. hlm. 6. ISBN 9780822319948. LCCN 97019110. OCLC 610947243.
- ↑ Wong, Tom K. (2015). Rights, Deportation, and Detention in the Age of Immigration Control. Stanford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780804794572. LCCN 2014038930. page 68
- ↑ Bidlack, Richard; Lomagin, Nikita (2012). The Leningrad Blockade, 1941-1944: A New Documentary History from the Soviet Archives (dalam bahasa Inggris). Yale University Press. hlm. 1. ISBN 978-0-300-11029-6.
- ↑ Vihavainen, Timo; Schrey-Vasara, Gabriele (2011). "Opfer, Täter, Betrachter: Finnland und die Leningrader Blockade" [Victims, Perpetrators, Observers: Finland and the Leningrad Blockade]. Osteuropa (dalam bahasa Jerman). 61 (8/9): 48–63. JSTOR 44936431.
- ↑ Siegl, Elfie (2011). "Die doppelte Tragödie: Anna Reid über die Leningrader Blockade" [The Double Tragedy: Anna Reid on the Leningrad Blockade]. Osteuropa (dalam bahasa Jerman). 61 (8/9): 358–363. JSTOR 44936455.
- 1 2 3 Krasman, Noah (2 October 2023). "The Paradox of Genocide in Modern Russia: Evolving Narratives of the Siege of Leningrad During the "Great Patriotic Operation"". Journal of Genocide Research. 25 (3–4): 403–417. doi:10.1080/14623528.2023.2214408.
As determined by scholars and the recent court decision in St. Petersburg, the siege was a "war crime, a crime against humanity, and genocide."
- 1 2 Glantz, David (2001). The Siege of Leningrad 1941–44: 900 Days of Terror. Zenith Press, Osceola, WI. ISBN 0-7603-0941-8.
- ↑
- Riep, Leonhard (2020). "The Production of the Muselmann and the Singularity of Auschwitz: A Critique of Adriana Cavarero's Account of the "Auschwitz Event"" (PDF). Hypatia. 35 (4): 635. doi:10.1017/hyp.2020.41. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 7 January 2023.
...between 5 and 6 million. According to Wolfgang Benz, at least 5.29 million up to around 6 million Jews of every age were murdered (Benz 1991, 17), whereas Raul Hilberg counts 5.1 million dead (Hilberg 2003, 1320–21)
- Fischel 2020, hlm. 10: "The number of Jews killed by the Germans in the Holocaust cannot be precisely calculated. Various historians, however, have provided estimates that range between 4,204,000 and 7,000,000, with the use of the round figure of six million Jews murdered as the best estimate to describe the immensity of the Nazi genocide. The Germans exterminated approximately 54 percent of the Jews within their reach..."
- Roth, John K. (2020). Sources of Holocaust Insight: Learning and Teaching about the Genocide. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers. hlm. 1n1. ISBN 978-1-5326-7418-1 – via Google Buku.
...Raul Hilberg... 5.1 million... Israel Gutman and Robert Rozett... between 5–5 and 5.8 million... Wolfgang Benz... 6.2 million. The figures remain imprecise for several reasons, including...
- Rummel, R.J. (2017) [1978]. "Democide in Totalitarian States". Dalam Charny, Israel W. (ed.). The widening circle of genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-29406-5 – via Google Buku.
4,204,400 to 4,575,400... the lowest count by any reputable study.
- Oman, Nathan (2016). The dignity of commerce: markets and the moral foundations of contract law. University of Chicago Press. hlm. 203n64. ISBN 9780226415529 – via Google Buku.
Bloxham... "Between 5,100,000 and 6,200,000...
- Stier, Oren Baruch (2015). Holocaust Icons: Symbolizing the Shoah in History and Memory. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-7404-2 – via Google Buku.
... between five and six million. The late Raul Hilberg, for example, political scientist and widely acknowledged dean of Holocaust historiography, estimated 5.1 million Jewish victims, and that number did not change in the third edition of his monumental work. This indicates, one might presume, that he was satisfied with his rigorous investigation into this figure... The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust offers a number of "more than" five million in its definition of the Holocaust.18 In 2007 the Division of the Senior Historian at the USHMM developed a series of estimates (dependent on means of counting) of between 5.65 million and 5.93 million, based on published accounts by Hilberg and others as well as on Soviet documents available only since 1991... No estimate has gone higher than six million.
- Rubinstein, William D. (2014) [2004]. Genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5 – via Google Buku.
The number of Jews killed at the hands of the Nazis is invariably given, in shorthand terms at any rate, as 6 million, a figure which has, of course, entered the common consciousness and is endlessly repeated.122 It appears likely, however, that this number is too high by a considerable amount, as some careful Holocaust scholars such as Gerald Reitlinger and Raul Hilberg have pointed out. Reitlinger's early (1953) but carefully argued estimate of between 4,194,000 and 4,581,000 Jewish deaths is certainly the lowest ever offered by a serious historian; Hilberg's more recent, but even more carefully argued estimate of 5,100,000... appears to be the next lowest among reputable scholars... it appears to this historian that Reitlinger's figures are probably most nearly correct, with the figure of Jewish victims of the Holocaust numbering about 4.7 million, although there is a wide margin of imprecision. Given that about 2.7 million Jews perished in the six major extermination camps, a figure of 6 million Jewish dead necessarily means that 3.3 million perished in other ways: this is very difficult to believe and is almost certainly an exaggeration. In demographic terms, there are two ways of approaching this question: to compare the number of Jews in Nazi-occupied countries in September 1939 with those alive in May 1945 (bearing in mind such other factors as the escape of refugees and battle deaths), and to provide an estimate of the number of Jews who perished by method of death in the extermination camps, at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen, etc. Both are fraught with difficulties, especially the former
- Hayes, Peter; Roth, John K. (2012) [2010]. The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies. Oxford University Press. hlm. 197. ISBN 978-0-19-165079-6 – via Google Buku.
Nevertheless, scholarly research, aided by recently opened archives and computerized data processing capacities, has put statistical estimates on a firmer footing than was possible in earlier decades. In previous stages of research, estimates of the Jewish victims ranged from 4,202,000—4,575,400 (Reitlinger 1961: 533–46), to 5.1 million (Hilberg 1961: 767), to 5,820,960 (Robinson 1971'. 889), to 6,093,000 (Lestchinsky 1948:60). At the end of the 1980s two different teams, one headed by a German scholar, another by an Israeli, meticulously reviewed all the available data and arrived at the following numbers for Jewish fatalities during the Holocaust: 5,596,000 to 5,860,149 (Gutman 1990: 1799) and 5.29 million to slightly more than 6 million (Benz 1991: 17). The new Yad Vashem museum, which opened in 2005, mentions 5,786,748 Jewish victims. One can be skeptical of such precision, but the most current research reliably calculates a total number of victims close to the now iconic figure Six Million
- Benz, Wolfgang (2006). A Concise History of the Third Reich (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi 1st). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. hlm. 232. ISBN 0-520-23489-8.
At least six million human beings were deliberately and systematically murdered because they were Jews.
- Benz, Wolfgang (1999). The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi 1st). New York: Columbia University Press. hlm. 12, 152–153. ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5.
Six million Jews (not fewer, most probably more) were murdered in the course of the Final Solution of the Jewish question,
- Bracher, Karl Dietrich (1970). The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure and Effects of National Socialism (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi 1st). New York: Praeger Publishers. hlm. 430.
The genocide of the Jews — according to Eichmann's figures more than 6 million (4 million in extermination camps) had been murdered by the summer of 1944 . . . Estimates of the total losses range from 5 to 7 million. At any rate, the total number of Jews in Europe declined from 9.2 to 3.1 million.
- Riep, Leonhard (2020). "The Production of the Muselmann and the Singularity of Auschwitz: A Critique of Adriana Cavarero's Account of the "Auschwitz Event"" (PDF). Hypatia. 35 (4): 635. doi:10.1017/hyp.2020.41. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 7 January 2023.
- ↑ Bracher, Karl Dietrich (1970). The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure and Effects of National Socialism (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi 1st). New York: Praeger Publishers. hlm. 430.
Estimates of the total losses range from 5 to 7 million.
- ↑ Fischel 2020, hlm. 10.
- ↑ Landau, Ronnie S. (2016). The Nazi Holocaust: Its History and Meaning (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi 3rd). I. B. Tauris. hlm. 3. ISBN 978-0-85772-843-2.
- ↑ Herf, Jeffrey C. (2024). "The Long Term and the Short Term: Antisemitism and the Holocaust". Dalam Weitzman, Mark; Williams, Robert J.; Wald, James (ed.). The Routledge History of Antisemitism (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi 1st). Abingdon and New York: Routledge. hlm. 278. doi:10.4324/9780429428616. ISBN 978-1-138-36944-3.
- ↑ Gerlach, Christian (2016). The Extermination of the European Jews (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi 1st). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. hlm. 99–100. ISBN 9781139034180.
- ↑ Stone, Lewi (2019). "Quantifying the Holocaust: Hyperintense kill rates during the Nazi genocide". Science Advances. 5 (1): eaau7292. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.7292S. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau7292. PMC 6314819. PMID 30613773.
- ↑ For a listing of the number of murdered Jews, detailed by country, see Dawidowicz, Lucy (2010). The War Against the Jews: 1933–1945. Open Road Media. Appendix A. ISBN 978-1453203064.
- ↑ Rosenberg, Alan (1979). "The Genocidal Universe: A Framework for Understanding the Holocaust". European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe. 13 (1): 29–34. ISSN 0014-3006. JSTOR 41442658.
- ↑ Stone, Dan (2023). The Holocaust: An Unfinished History (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi 1st). Pelican Books. hlm. 191. ISBN 978-0-241-38871-6.
- ↑ "Remaining Jewish Population of Europe in 1945". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal 13 June 2018.
According to the American Jewish Yearbook, the Jewish population of Europe was about 9.5 million in 1933. In 1950, the Jewish population of Europe was about 3.5 million.
- ↑ Berenbaum, Michael (2006). The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi 2nd). Washington, DC: Museum Memorial Holokaus Amerika Serikat. hlm. 16, 220. ISBN 978-0-8018-8358-3.
- 1 2 Yeomans, Rory (2013). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945. University of Pittsburgh Press. hlm. 18. ISBN 9780822977933.
Although the estimates of the number of Serbs murdered by the regime vary, even the most conservative figures suggest that out of a pre-war population of 1.9 million, at least 200,000 and possibly as many as 500,000 died at the hands of Ustasha death squads, were executed, or perished in the state's concentration camps.
- 1 2 "Axis Invasion of Yugoslavia – Croatia". Holocaust Encyclopedia. Museum Memorial Holokaus Amerika Serikat. 2010. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 14 January 2024. Diakses tanggal 12 August 2016.
- 1 2 "The JUST Act Report: Croatia". state.gov. U.S. Department of State.
In all, approximately 30,000 Jews (between 75–80 percent of the Jews within the NDH) died during the Holocaust, the majority at the hands of the Ustasha, although the NDH also transferred some 7,000 Jews to the Nazis to be deported to Auschwitz... The NDH also killed an estimated 25,000 or more Roma men, women, and children, the vast majority of the Roma population under its control.
- 1 2 Geiger 2012.
- ↑
- Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War. London; New York: Frank Cass. hlm. 155. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0 – via Google Buku.
- Klemenčič, Matjaž; Žagar, Mitja (2004). The former Yugoslavia's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook. ABC-CLIO. hlm. 184. ISBN 978-1-57607-294-3 – via Google Buku.
- Hoare, Marko Attila (2006). Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks, 1941–1943. Oxford University Press. hlm. 154. ISBN 0197263801 – via Google Buku.
- Tomasevich 2001, hlm. 379, 747
- ↑ Geiger 2012, hlm. 77–121.
- ↑ Furber, David; Lower, Wendy (2008). "Colonialism and genocide in Nazi-occupied Poland and Ukraine". Dalam Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History (dalam bahasa Inggris). Berghahn Books. hlm. 393. ISBN 978-1-78238-214-0 – via Google Buku.
- ↑ Bauer, Yehuda (1999). "Comparison of Genocides". Dalam Chorbajian, Levon; Shirinian, George (ed.). Studies in Comparative Genocide. Palgrave Macmillan. hlm. 31–43. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-27348-5_3. ISBN 978-1-349-27348-5.
According to Polish sources, about three million ethnic Poles lost their lives during the war, or about 10 per cent of the Polish nation(...) large numbers were murdered, or died as a result of direct German actions such as denying food or medical treatment to Poles, or incarceration in concentration camps. There is no way of estimating the exact proportions, but I believe it would be difficult to deny that we have here a case of mass murder directed against Poles. German plans regarding Poles talked about denationalizing the Polish people, or in other words, making them into individuals who would no longer have any national identity(...)This is a case of genocide – a purposeful attempt toeliminate an ethnicity or a nation, accompanied by the murder of large numbers of the targeted group.
- 1 2 "Polish Victims" (dalam bahasa Inggris). Museum Memorial Holokaus Amerika Serikat. Diakses tanggal 30 October 2020.
It is estimated that the Germans killed between 1.8 and 1.9 million non-Jewish Polish civilians during World War II. In addition, the Germans murdered at least 3 million Jewish citizens of Poland.
- ↑ Cherry, Robert D.; Orla-Bukowska, Annamaria (2007). Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future (dalam bahasa Inggris). Rowman & Littlefield. hlm. 52. ISBN 978-0-7425-4666-0 – via Google Buku.
...and the ruthlessness of German rule in Poland, where three million gentiles also perished and the punishment for hiding a Jew was execution of captured rescuers and their immediate families.
- 1 2 Banki & Pawlikowski 2001, hlm. 93
- ↑ Kulesza 2004, PDF, p. 29.
- ↑ Gushee 2012, hlm. 313–314.
- ↑ Kiernan, Ben; Lower, Wendy; Naimark, Norman; Straus, Scott, ed. (2023). "15: The Nazis and the Slavs - Poles and Soviet Prisoners of War". The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. 3: Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914–2020. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108767118. ISBN 978-1-108-48707-8.
- ↑ "Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945". Museum Memorial Holokaus Amerika Serikat. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 25 December 2024. Diakses tanggal 12 April 2024.
- ↑ Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. hlm. 47. ISBN 978-0-231-50590-1. Diakses tanggal 5 July 2016 – via Google Buku.
- ↑ Hancock, Ian (2005), "True Romanies and the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation and an overview", The Historiography of the Holocaust, Palgrave Macmillan, hlm. 383–396, ISBN 978-1-4039-9927-6, diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 28 September 2011
- ↑ Ignác, Benjamin (2 August 2018). "Why it is important to remember the Roma Holocaust?" (dalam bahasa Inggris). European Roma Rights Centre. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 9 September 2024. Diakses tanggal 2 August 2023.
- ↑ Davis, Mark (5 May 2015). "How World War II shaped modern Germany". euronews. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 7 April 2024.
- ↑ "Holocaust Encyclopedia – Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945". USHMM. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 5 August 2011. Diakses tanggal 9 August 2011.
- ↑ Milton, Sybil (February 1992). "Nazi Policies towards Roma and Sinti 1933–1945". Journal of Gypsy Lore Society. 2 (1): 1–18. Diakses tanggal 12 August 2016.
- ↑ "The NKVD Mass Secret National Operations (August 1937 - November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network". www.sciencespo.fr (dalam bahasa Inggris). 15 April 2019. Diakses tanggal 21 July 2025.
- ↑ Kotliartchouk, Andrej (February 2025). "Understanding Stalin's Terror against Western Minorities: The National Operations of the NKVD in Contemporary Academic Research". The Historical Journal (dalam bahasa Inggris). 68 (1): 239–257. doi:10.1017/S0018246X24000487. ISSN 0018-246X.
- ↑ Savin, Andrey. "Ethnification of Stalinism? Ethnic Cleansings and the NKVD Order No 00447 in a Comparative Perspective". Dalam Andrej Kotljarchuk & Olle Sundström (ed.). Ethnic and Religious Minorities in Stalin’s Soviet Union: New Dimensions of Research. hlm. 63.
- ↑
- Ellman 2007
- Sebag-Montefiore, Simon (2003). Stalin. The Court of the Red Tsar. New York: Vintage Books. hlm. 229. ISBN 1-4000-7678-1.
- Naimark, Norman M. (November 2016). Genocide: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-063772-9.
- ↑ Ellman 2007, hlm. 686.
- ↑ The Great Purge in Ukraine The German Operation of the NKVD (1937–8) ByVolodymyr Semystyaha, Igor Tatarinov Book The Routledge History of Genocide Edition 1st Edition First Published 2015 Imprint Routledge Pages 22 eBook ISBN 9781315719054
- ↑ Maria Cristina Fumagalli (2015). On the Edge: Writing the Border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Liverpool University Press. hlm. 20. ISBN 9781781387573.
- ↑ Turits 2004, hlm. 161.
- ↑ Cadeau, Sabine F. (2022). More than a Massacre: Racial Violence and Citizenship in the Haitian–Dominican Borderlands. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108942508. ISBN 978-1108942508. S2CID 249325622.
- ↑ Turits 2002, hlm. 590.
- ↑ Maria Cristina Fumagalli (2015). On the Edge: Writing the Border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Liverpool University Press. hlm. 20. ISBN 978-1-78138-757-3.
- ↑ Cambeira, Alan (1997). Quisqueya la bella (Edisi 1996). M. E. Sharpe. hlm. 182. ISBN 1-56324-936-7.
anyone of African descent found incapable of pronouncing correctly, that is, to the complete satisfaction of the sadistic examiners, became a condemned individual. This holocaust is recorded as having a death toll reaching thirty thousand innocent souls, Haitians as well as Dominicans.
- ↑ Paulino, Edward (16 February 2016). Dividing Hispaniola: The Dominican Republic's Border Campaign against Haiti, 1930–1961. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 9780822981039 – via Google Buku.
- ↑ Turits 2002, hlm. 630.
- ↑ Naimark 2010, hlm. 70.
- 1 2 Naimark 2010, hlm. 70, 147.
- ↑ Rozenas, Arturas; Zhukov, Yuri M. (2019). "Mass Repression and Political Loyalty: Evidence from Stalin's 'Terror by Hunger'". American Political Science Review. 113 (2): 571. doi:10.1017/S0003055419000066. S2CID 143428346.
Similar to famines in Ireland in 1846–1851 (Ó Gráda 2007) and China in 1959–1961 (Meng, Qian and Yared 2015), the politics behind Holodomor have been a focus of historiographic debate. The most common interpretation is that Holodomor was 'terror by hunger' (Conquest 1987, 224), 'state aggression' (Applebaum 2017) and 'clearly premeditated mass murder' (Snyder 2010, 42). Others view it as an unintended by-product of Stalin's economic policies (Kotkin 2017; Naumenko 2017), precipitated by natural factors like adverse weather and crop infestation (Davies and Wheatcroft 1996; Tauger 2001).
- ↑ Andriewsky, Olga (2015). "Towards a Decentred History: The Study of the Holodomor and Ukrainian Historiography". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 2 (1): 37. doi:10.21226/T2301N.
Historians of Ukraine are no longer debating whether the Famine was the result of natural causes (and even then not exclusively by them). The academic debate appears to come down to the issue of intentions, to whether the special measures undertaken in Ukraine in the winter of 1932–33 that intensified starvation were aimed at Ukrainians as such.
- ↑ Grynevych, Liudmyla [in Ukraina] (2008). "The Present State of Ukrainian Historiography on the Holodomor and Prospects for Its Development". The Harriman Review. 16 (2). Harriman Institute: 10–20. doi:10.7916/d8-enqm-hy61.
- ↑ Ellman 2007.
- ↑ Ohayon 2016.
- 1 2 3 Duggan, Christopher (2008). The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 (dalam bahasa Inggris). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. hlm. 497. ISBN 978-0-618-35367-5.
- 1 2 Wright, John (1982). A History of Modern Libya. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 21 September 2023.
- ↑ Mann, Michael (2006). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 309. ISBN 9780521538541 – via Google Buku.
- ↑ Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (23 March 2011). Making of Modern Libya, The: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi Second). SUNY Press. hlm. 146. ISBN 9781438428932 – via Google Buku.
- ↑ Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul Robert (2008). Dictionary of Genocide: A-L. ABC-CLIO. hlm. 259. ISBN 9780313346422.
- ↑ Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (2023), Kiernan, Ben; Naimark, Norman; Straus, Scott; Lower, Wendy (ed.), "Eurocentrism, Silence and Memory of Genocide in Colonial Libya, 1929–1934", The Cambridge World History of Genocide: Volume 3: Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914–2020, The Cambridge World History of Genocide, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, hlm. 118–140, ISBN 978-1-108-76711-8, diakses tanggal 10 December 2023
- ↑ The Report: Libya 2008. Oxford Business Group. 2008. hlm. 17.
- ↑ Duggan 2007, hlm. 497.
- ↑ Pappé, Ilan (2005). The Modern Middle East. Routledge. hlm. 26. ISBN 0-415-21409-2.
- ↑ Cardoza, Anthony L. (2006). Benito Mussolini: the first fascist. Pearson Longman. hlm. 109.
- ↑ Bloxham & Moses 2010, hlm. 358.
- ↑ Bijak, Jakub; Lubman, Sarah (2016). "The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923". The Armenian Genocide Legacy (dalam bahasa Inggris). Palgrave Macmillan UK. hlm. 39. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3.
- ↑ Morris & Ze'evi 2019, hlm. 1.
- ↑ Robertson, Geoffrey (2016). "Armenia and the G-word: The Law and the Politics". The Armenian Genocide Legacy (dalam bahasa Inggris). Palgrave Macmillan UK. hlm. 69–83. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3.
Put another way – if these same events occurred today, there can be no doubt that prosecutions before the ICC of Talaat and other CUP officials for genocide, for persecution and for other crimes against humanity would succeed. Turkey would be held responsible for genocide and for persecution by the ICJ and would be required to make reparation.14 That Court would also hold Germany responsible for complicity with the genocide and persecution, since it had full knowledge of the massacres and deportations and decided not to use its power and influence over the Ottomans to stop them. But to the overarching legal question that troubles the international community today, namely whether the killings of Armenians in 1915 can properly be described as a genocide, the analysis in this chapter returns are sounding affirmative answer.
- ↑ Lattanzi, Flavia (2018). "The Armenian Massacres as the Murder of a Nation?". The Armenian Massacres of 1915–1916 a Hundred Years Later: Open Questions and Tentative Answers in International Law (dalam bahasa Inggris). Springer International Publishing. hlm. 27–104. ISBN 978-3-319-78169-3.
Starting from the claim by the Armenian community and the majority of historians that the 1915–1916 Armenian massacres and deportations constitute genocide as well as Turkey's fierce opposition to such a qualification, this paper investigates the possibility of identifying those massacres and deportations as the destruction of a nation. On the basis of a thorough analysis of the facts and the required mental element, the author shows that a deliberate destruction, in a substantial part, of the Armenian Christian nation as such, took place in those years. To come to this conclusion, this paper borrows the very same determinants as those used in the case-law of the Military Tribunals in occupied Germany, the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda in genocide cases.
- ↑ "The Armenian Genocide (1915–16): In Depth" (dalam bahasa Inggris). Museum Memorial Holokaus Amerika Serikat. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 20 October 2023. Diakses tanggal 30 October 2020.
Although the term genocide was not coined until 1944, most scholars agree that the mass murder of Armenians fits this definition. The CUP government systematically used an emergency military situation to effect a long-term population policy aimed at strengthening Muslim Turkish elements in Anatolia at the expense of the Christian population (primarily Armenians, but also Christian Assyrians). Ottoman, Armenian, US, British, French, German, and Austrian documents from the time reveal that the CUP leadership intentionally targeted the Armenian population of Anatolia.
- ↑ Morris & Ze'evi 2019, hlm. 3–5.
- ↑ Suny, Ronald Grigor (2015). "They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide. Princeton University Press. hlm. xxi. ISBN 978-1-4008-6558-1.
- ↑ Pamuk, Şevket (2018). Uneven Centuries: Economic Development of Turkey since 1820. Princeton University Press. hlm. 50. ISBN 978-0691184982.
- ↑ Travis, Hannibal (December 2006). Native Christians Massacred': The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians During World War I. Genocide Studies and Prevention. Vol. 1. hlm. 327–371.
- ↑ Ze'evi, Dror; Morris, Benny (2020). "Response to Critique: The thirty-year genocide. Turkey's destruction of its Christian minorities, 1894–1924, by Benny Morris and Dror Ze'evi, Cambridge, MA, and London, Harvard University Press, 2019, 672 pp., USD$35.00 (hardcover), ISBN 9780674916456". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (4): 561–566. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1735600. S2CID 216395523.
- ↑ Sjöberg, Erik (2016). The Making of the Greek Genocide: Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe (dalam bahasa Inggris). Berghahn Books. hlm. 234. ISBN 978-1-78533-326-2.
Activists tend to inflate the overall total of Ottoman Greek deaths, from the cautious estimates between 300,000 to 700,000...
- ↑ Halo, Thea (2017). Shirinian, George (ed.). Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913-1923. Berghahn Books. hlm. 314. ISBN 9781785334337.
Clearly, by the time of the exchange, there had been ten years of atrocities against the Ottoman Greek populations in Thrace, Western Asia Minor, and Pontos, with a death toll estimated at 1.2 million Ottoman Greeks.
- ↑ Varnava, Andrekos (2016). "Book Review: Denial of Violence: Ottoman Past, Turkish Present and Collective Violence against the Armenians, 1789–2009". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 10 (1): 121–123. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.10.1.1403. ISSN 1911-0359.
- ↑ Barth, Boris (2006). Genozid. Völkermord im 20. Jahrhundert. Geschichte, Theorien, Kontroversen [Genocide: Genocide in the 20th Century: History, theories, controversies] (dalam bahasa Jerman). München: C. H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-40652-865-1.
- ↑ Jones 2010, hlm. 163.
- ↑ Meichanetsidis, Vasileios (2015). "The Genocide of the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire, 1913–1923: A Comprehensive Overview". Genocide Studies International (dalam bahasa Inggris). 9 (1): 104–173. doi:10.3138/gsi.9.1.06. ISSN 2291-1847. S2CID 154870709.
The genocide was committed by two subsequent and chronologically, ideologically, and organically interrelated and interconnected dictatorial and chauvinist regimes: (1) the regime of the CUP, under the notorious triumvirate of the three pashas (Üç Paşalar), Talât, Enver, and Cemal, and (2) the rebel government at Samsun and Ankara, under the authority of the Grand National Assembly (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) and Kemal. Although the process had begun before the Balkan Wars, the final and most decisive period started immediately after WWI and ended with the almost total destruction of the Pontic Greeks
- ↑ Weisband, Edward (2017). The Macabresque: Human Violation and Hate in Genocide, Mass Atrocity and Enemy-Making (dalam bahasa Inggris). Oxford University Press. hlm. 262. ISBN 978-0-19-067789-3 – via Google Buku.
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- ↑ Lagos, Ioannis. "Parliamentary question | EU recognition of the genocide of Greeks in Asia Minor | E-004308/2021 | European Parliament". www.europarl.europa.eu (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 22 June 2025.
- 1 2 3 Nuhn 1989.
- ↑ Whitaker Report 1985.
- ↑ Moses 2008, hlm. 296; Sarkin-Hughes 2008, hlm. 142; Schaller 2008, hlm. 296; Friedrichsmeyer, Lennox & Zantop 1998, hlm. 87; Nuhn 1989; Hoffmann 2007, hlm. 33
- ↑ "Germany admits Namibia genocide". BBC News. 14 August 2004. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 27 February 2024. Diakses tanggal 20 February 2016.
- ↑ "German minister says sorry for genocide in Namibia". The Guardian. 16 August 2004. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 24 September 2023. Diakses tanggal 20 February 2016.
- ↑ "UN Whitaker Report on Genocide, 1985". Prevent Genocide International. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 11 February 2024.
paragraphs 14 to 24, pages 5 to 10
- 1 2 Chapman 2010, hlm. 544.
- 1 2 Adhikari, Mohamed; Carmichael, Cathie; Jones, Adam; Kapila, Shruti; Naimark, Norman; Weitz, Eric D. (2018). "Genocide and Global and/or World History: Reflections". Journal of Genocide Research. 20 (1): 134–153. doi:10.1080/14623528.2017.1363476. S2CID 80081680.
- ↑ Gigoux 2022, hlm. 1–2.
- ↑ Harambour 2019a, hlm. ?.
- ↑ Gardini 1984.
- ↑ Ray 2007, hlm. 95.
- ↑ Richmond 2013; Levene 2005, hlm. 301; Human Rights Association 2023; Genel Komite 2014
- ↑ Shenfield 1999, hlm. 154; Richmond 2013; Genel Komite 2014; Ahmed 2013, hlm. 357
- ↑ Messenger, Evan (6 December 2023). "The Circassian Genocide: The Forgotten Tragedy of the First Modern Genocide". American University: Journal of International Service.
The corroboration between both Turkish and Russian documents puts the number of Circassian deaths by military operations and pre-planned massacres between 1.5 – 2 million; ...
- ↑ Richmond 2013, hlm. 1–2; Shenfield 1999, hlm. 154; King 2008; Jones 2016, hlm. 109
- ↑
- "UNPO: The Circassian Genocide". unpo.org. 2 November 2009. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 23 May 2024. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2020.
- Javakhishvili, Niko (20 December 2012). "Coverage of The tragedy public Thought (later half of the 19th century)". justicefornorthcaucasus.info. Tbilisi State University. Diakses tanggal 1 June 2015.
- "Postanovleniye Verkhovnogo Soveta K-BSSR ob osuzhdenii genotsida cherkesov ot 7 fevralya 1992 g. N° 977-XII-B" Постановление Верховного Совета К-БССР об осуждении геноцида черкесов от 7 февраля 1992 г. N° 977-XII-B [Decree of the Supreme Council of the K-BSSR on the condemnation of the genocide of the Circassians of February 7, 1992 N ° 977-XII-B]. elot.ru. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 15 July 2012. Diakses tanggal 13 August 2012.
- "Postanovleniye Parlamenta Kabardino-Balkarskoy Respubliki ot 12.05.1994 № 21-P-P (ob obrashchenii v Gosdumu s voprosom priznaniya genotsida cherkesov) Nedostupnaya ssylka" Постановление Парламента Кабардино-Балкарской Республики от 12.05.1994 № 21-П-П (об обращении в Госдуму с вопросом признания геноцида черкесов) Недоступная ссылка [Decree of the Parliament of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic of May 12, 1994 No. 21-P-P (on applying to the State Duma with the issue of recognizing the genocide of the Circassians) Unavailable link]. parlament-kbr.ru (dalam bahasa Rusia). September 2021.[pranala nonaktif permanen]
- "Postanovleniye GS — Khase Respubliki Adygeya ot 29.04.1996 № 64-1 «Ob obrashchenii k Gosudarstvennoy Dume Federal'nogo Sobraniya Rossiyskoy Federatsii»" Постановление ГС — Хасэ Республики Адыгея от 29.04.1996 № 64-1 «Об обращении к Государственной Думе Федерального Собрания Российской Федерации» [Decree of the State Council – Khase of the Republic of Adygea dated April 29, 1996 No. 64-1 "On Appeal to the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation"]. pravoteka.ru (dalam bahasa Rusia).
- ↑ Sources:
- Shenfield 1999, hlm. 149–162: "The number who died in the Circassian catastrophe of the 1860s could hardly, therefore, have been fewer than one million, and may well have been closer to one-and-a-half million"
- Richmond 2013
- King 2008
- Cataliotti, Joseph (22 October 2023). "Circassian Genocide: Overview & History". Study.com. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 20 March 2023.
- "Circassian Genocide on its 159th Anniversary". Human Rights Association. 21 May 2023. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 22 August 2023.
- 1 2 3 4 Richmond 2013, back cover.
- 1 2 Yemelianova, Galina (April 2014). "Islam, nationalism and state in the Muslim Caucasus". Caucasus Survey. 1 (2): 3. doi:10.1080/23761199.2014.11417291.
- ↑ Üstel, Aziz. "Soykırım mı; işte Çerkes soykırımı" [Is it genocide; here is the Circassian genocide]. star.com.tr (dalam bahasa Turki). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 20 October 2023. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2020.
- ↑ Capobianco, Michael (2012). Blood on the Shore: The Circassian Genocide
- ↑ Gazetesi, Jıneps (2 September 2013). "Velyaminov, Zass ve insan kafası biriktirme hobisi" [Velyaminov, Zass and his hobby of collecting human heads]. Jıneps Gazetesi (dalam bahasa Turki). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 27 December 2024. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2020.
- ↑ Richmond 2013, hlm. 132: "If we assume that Berzhe's middle figure of 50,000 was close to the number who survived to settle in the lowlands, then between 95 percent and 97 percent of all Circassians were killed outright, died during Evdokimov's campaign, or were deported."
- ↑ Rosser-Owen, Isla. "The First Circassian Exodus to the Ottoman Empire (1858–1867), and the Ottoman Response, based on the accounts of Contemporary British Observers" (PDF). Circassianworld. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 29 February 2024.
- ↑ King, Charles. The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus. hlm. 95.
- ↑ Madley, Benjamin (2016). An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873.
- 1 2 "California Genocide". Public Broadcasting Service. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 8 July 2007. Diakses tanggal 8 January 2007.
- ↑ Adhikari, Mohamed (25 July 2022). Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. hlm. 72–115. ISBN 978-1647920548. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal March 26, 2023. Diakses tanggal March 21, 2023.
- 1 2 3 Tatz, Colin (2006). "Confronting Australian Genocide". Dalam Maaka, Roger; Andersen, Chris (ed.). The Indigenous Experience: Global Perspectives. Aboriginal History. Vol. 25. Canadian Scholars Press. hlm. 16–36. ISBN 978-1551303000. PMID 19514155.
- 1 2 Evans, Raymond; Ørsted–Jensen, Robert (2014-07-09). ""I Cannot Say the Numbers that Were Killed": Assessing Violent Mortality on the Queensland Frontier". AHA (paper). University of Queensland: Social Science Research Network. SSRN 2467836.
- ↑ Ørsted-Jensen 2011.
- ↑
- Gibbons, Ray. "The Partial Case for Queensland Genocide". Academia. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 27 December 2023.
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- Palmer, Alison (1998). "Colonial and modern genocide: explanations and categories". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 21 (1): 89–115. doi:10.1080/014198798330115.
- ↑ Kopel, Dave; Gallant, Paul; Eisen, Joanne D. (2003-04-11). "A Moriori Lesson: a brief history of pacifism". National Review.
- ↑ "Tommy Solomon". Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 23 January 2016.
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- 1 2 "The Genocide". Moriori Genocide. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 11 December 2023. Diakses tanggal 19 October 2018.
- ↑ King, Michael (2011). The Silence Beyond. Penguin. hlm. 190. ISBN 978-1459623019.
- ↑ Davis, Denise; Solomon, Māui (28 October 2008). "Moriori: The impact of new arrivals". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. NZ Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Diakses tanggal 2009-02-07.
- ↑ King, Michael (2000). Moriori: a People Rediscovered (Edisi Revised). Viking. hlm. 57–58. ISBN 0-14-010391-0.
- ↑ King, Michael (1989). Moriori: A People Rediscovered. Auckland: Viking. hlm. 136.
- 1 2 Michael, Nicky; Smith, Beverly Jean; Lowe, William (2021). "Reclaiming Social Justice and Human Rights: The 1830 Indian Removal Act and the Ethnic Cleansing of Native American Tribes". Journal of Health and Human Experience. 6 (1): 25–39 [31].
- ↑ Minges, Patrick (1998). "Beneath the Underdog: Race, Religion, and the Trail of Tears". US Data Repository. Diarsipkan dari versi aslinya tanggal Oktober 11, 2013. Diakses tanggal Januari 13, 2013.
- ↑ Keefe, Thomas E. (13–14 April 2019). Native American Genocide: Realities and Denials. First International Conference of the Center for Holocaust, Genocide & Human Rights Studies, University of North Carolina. Charlotte. hlm. 21.
- ↑ Martin Rogers, Janna Lynell (July 2019). Decolonizing Cherokee History 1790-1830s: American Indian Holocaust, Genocidal Resistance, and Survival (MA). Oklahoma State University. hlm. 63.
- ↑ Dadrian, Vahakn N. (1975). "A Typology of Genocide". International Review of Modern Sociology. 5 (2): 201–212 [209]. JSTOR 41421531.
- ↑ Jones 2010, hlm. 75.
- ↑ Bracey, Earnest N. (2021). "Andrew Jackson, Black American Slavery, and the Trail of Tears: A Critical Analysis". Dialogue and Universalism. 31 (1): 119–138 [128]. doi:10.5840/du20213118.
- ↑ Fenelon, James V.; Trafzer, Clifford E. (2014). "From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americas". American Behavioral Scientist. 58 (3): 3–29 [16]. doi:10.1177/0002764213495045.
- ↑ Ostler, Jeffrey (2019). "Naming Removal". Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas. Yale University Press. hlm. 363–368 [368]. doi:10.2307/j.ctvgc629z. ISBN 978-0-300-21812-1. JSTOR j.ctvgc629z. S2CID 166826195.
Overall, then, although the U.S. policy of removal was not intended to kill as many Indians as possible, answering the question of genocide for this particular phase of United States–Indian relations with an absolute "no" too easily dismisses the matter. ... In its outcome and in the means used to gain compliance, the policy had genocidal dimensions.
- ↑ Lutz, Regan A. (June 1995). West of Eden: The Historiography of the Trail of Tears (PhD). University of Toledo. hlm. 216–217.
- ↑ Michael, Smith & Lowe 2021, hlm. 27.
- ↑ Piecuch, Jim (7 December 2014). "Perspective 1: three Centuries of Genocide". Dalam Bartrop, Paul R.; Jacobs, Steven Leonard (ed.). Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1610693639.
- ↑ Basso, Andrew R. (6 March 2016). "Towards a Theory of Displacement Atrocities: The Cherokee Trail of Tears, The Herero Genocide, and The Pontic Greek Genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 10 (1): 5–29 [15]. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.10.1.1297.
- ↑ Harff, Barbara (1987). "The Etiology of Genocides". Dalam Wallimann, Isidor; Dobkowski, Michael N. (ed.). The Age of Genocide: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. hlm. 41.
- ↑ Strickland, Rennard (1986). "Genocide-at-Law: An Historic and Contemporary View of the North American Experience". University of Kansas Law Review. 713: 719.
- ↑ Tennant, Christopher C.; Turpel, Mary Ellen (1990). "A Case Study of Indigenous Peoples: Genocide, Ethnocide and Self-determination". Nordic Journal of International Law. 287 (4): 287–319 [296–297]. doi:10.1163/157181090X00387.
- ↑ Conversa, Maria (2021). "Righting the Wrongs of Native American Removal and Advocating for Tribal Recognition: A Binding Promise, The Trail of Tears, and the Philosophy of Restorative Justice". UIC Law Review. 933. University of Illinois Chicago: 4, 13.
- ↑ Lewy, Guenter (9 November 2007). "Can there be genocide without the intent to commit genocide?". Journal of Genocide Research. 9 (4): 661–674 [669]. doi:10.1080/14623520701644457.
- ↑ MacDonald, David B. (2015). "Canada's history wars: indigenous genocide and public memory in the United States, Australia and Canada". Journal of Genocide Research. 17 (4): 411–431 [415]. doi:10.1080/14623528.2015.1096583.
- ↑ Bowser, Benjamin P.; Word, Carl O.; Shaw, Kate (2021). "Ongoing Genocides and the Need for Healing: The Cases of Native and African Americans". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 15 (3): 83–99 [86]. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.15.3.1785.
- ↑ French, Laurence (June 1978). "The Death of a Nation". American Indian Journal. 4 (6): 2–9 [2].
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- ↑ Budhathoki, Thir Bahadur (December 2013). Literary Rendition of Genocide in Cherokee Fiction (MPhil). Tribhuvan University. hlm. 89.
- 1 2 Clements 2013, hlm. 329–331.
- ↑ Reynolds, Henry (2004). "Genocide in Tasmania?". Dalam Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and settler society: Frontier violence and stolen indigenous children in Australian History. Berghahn Books. hlm. 128.
- 1 2 Clements 2014, hlm. 4.
- 1 2 Girard 2011, hlm. 319–322.
- ↑ Girard, Philippe R. (2005). "Caribbean genocide: racial war in Haiti, 1802–4". Patterns of Prejudice. 39 (2): 138–161. doi:10.1080/00313220500106196. ISSN 0031-322X. S2CID 145204936.
The Haitian genocide and its historical counterparts [...] The 1804 Haitian genocide
- ↑ Robins, Nicholas A.; Jones, Adam (2009). "Introduction: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice.". Dalam Robins, Nicholas A.; Jones, Adam (ed.). Genocides by the Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice. Indiana University Press. hlm. 3. ISBN 9780253220776 – via Google Buku.
The Great Rebellion and the Haitian slave uprising are two examples of what we refer to as "subaltern genocide": cases in which subaltern actors—those objectively oppressed and disempowered—adopt genocidal strategies to vanquish their[...]
– Also stated in Jones, Adam (26 June 2013). "11: "Subaltern genocide: Genocides by the oppressed."". The Scourge of Genocide: Essays and Reflections. Routledge. hlm. 169. ISBN 9781135047153 – via Google Buku. A contrasting view is given by Gaffield, Julia (6 August 2021). "Five myths about the Haitian Revolution". The Washington Post. Diakses tanggal 5 October 2024.Anti-colonialism is not genocide.
- ↑ Moses, A. Dirk; Stone, Dan (2013). Colonialism and Genocide (dalam bahasa Inggris). Routledge. hlm. 63. ISBN 978-1-317-99753-5.
- ↑ Forde, James (2020). The Early Haitian State and the Question of Political Legitimacy: American and British Representations of Haiti, 1804—1824 (dalam bahasa Inggris). Springer. hlm. 40. ISBN 978-3-030-52608-5.
- 1 2 3 4 Adhikari, Mohamed (2023). "Settler Genocides of San Peoples of Southern Africa, c.1700–c.1940". The Cambridge World History of Genocide: Volume 2: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 69–96. ISBN 978-1-108-48643-9.
- 1 2 3 McDonald, Jared (October 2016). "'We do not know who painted our pictures': child transfers and cultural genocide in the destruction of Cape San societies along the Cape Colony's north-eastern frontier, c.1770–1830". Journal of Genocide Research. 18 (4): 519–538. doi:10.1080/14623528.2016.1220581.
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- ↑ Hitchcock, Robert K.; Babchuk, Wayne A. (2011). "Genocide of Khoekhoe and San Peoples of Southern Africa". Dalam Hitchcock, Robert K. (ed.). Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review (dalam bahasa Inggris). Routledge. ISBN 978-0203790830.
- ↑ Adhikari, Mohamed (2010). The Anatomy of a South African Genocide: The Extermination of the Cape San Peoples (dalam bahasa Inggris). University of Cape Town Press. hlm. 18. ISBN 978-1-919895-44-4.
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Date range of image: 1492 to 1514
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Daftar pustaka
Artikel utama: Daftar pustaka kajian genosida
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- Duggan, Christopher (2007). The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
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- Etcheson, Craig (2005). After the Killing Fields: Lessons from the Cambodian Genocide. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0275985134.
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- Friedrichsmeyer, Sara L.; Lennox, Sara; Zantop, Susanne M. (1998). The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472096824.
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- Irvin-Erickson, Douglas (2023). "The history of Raphael Lemkin and the UN Genocide Convention". Dalam Simon, David J.; Kahn, Leora (ed.). Handbook of Genocide Studies (dalam bahasa Inggris). Edward Elgar Publishing. hlm. 7–26. ISBN 978-1-80037-934-3.
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...w tych przypadkach, w których polska ludnosc cywilna podjela walke z Wehrmachtem, lecz ujeta przez wroga mordowana byla w egzekucjach poza sama walka, stawala sie ofiara oczywistych zbrodni wojennych. Konstatacja ta opiera sie takze na art. 6 statutu Miedzynarodowego Trybunalu Wojskowego w Norymberdze z 8 sierpnia 1945 r., który w punkcie b jako postaci zbrodni wojennych wskazuje pogwalcenie praw i zwyczajów wojennych przez morderstwa ludnosci cywilnej i jenców wojennych, a takze zabijanie zakladników oraz rozmyslne i bezcelowe burzenie miast, osad i wsi lub niszczenie nieusprawiedliwione wojskowa koniecznoscia.
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- Schaller, Dominik J. (2008). From Conquest to Genocide: Colonial Rule in German Southwest Africa and German East Africa. NY: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-8454-5452-4.
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- Turits, Richard Lee (2004). Foundations of Despotism: Peasants, the Trujillo Regime, and Modernity in Dominican History. Stanford University Press.
- Wei, Yuan (1842). Shèng wǔ jì 聖武記 [The Legend of the Sacred Warriors] (dalam bahasa Tionghoa). Vol. 4.
Jì shù shí wàn hù zhōng, xiān dòu sǐzhě shí zhī sì, jì cuàn rù èluósī hāsàkè zhě shí zhī èr, zú jiān yú dàbīng zhě shí zhī sān. Chú fùrú chōng shǎng wài, zhìjīn wéi lái jiàng shòu tún zhī è lǔ tè ruògān hù, biān shè zuǒ lǐng áng jí, cǐwài shù qiān lǐ jiān, wú wǎlá yī zhān zhàng.
計數十萬戶中，先痘死者十之四，繼竄入俄羅斯哈薩克者十之二，卒殲於大兵者十之三。除婦孺充賞外，至今惟來降受屯之厄鲁特若干戶，編設佐領昂吉，此外數千里間，無瓦剌一氊帳。 [Among the hundreds of thousands of households, four out of ten died of pox first, two out of ten fled into Russian Kazakhs, and three out of ten were killed by the soldiers. In addition to the generous rewards for women and children, so far only a few families from Erut who have come to the camp have set up assistants and leaders Angji. In addition, there is not a single tent with tiles or tiles for thousands of miles.] - Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2017). The Soviet Union and the Gutting of the UN Genocide Convention (dalam bahasa Inggris). University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-31290-9.
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According to the 1985 United Nations' Whitaker Report, some 65,000 Herero (80 per cent of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Nama (50% of the total Nama population) were killed between 1904 and 1907
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