Prevention

Cultural practices—The first line of defense for a garden or farm is to select varieties suited to local growing conditions such as resistant varieties and maintain healthy crops. Cultural practices may include techniques such as crop rotation and intercropping to promote healthy growing conditions.^[1]

Sanitation practices are essential. When dealing with plants, one can quarantine or remove diseased plants and take preventive measures such as cleaning of equipment (e.g. pruning shears) and selective disposal of debris to prevent spread of infections and pests.^[1] Sanitation practices that remove sources of food, water, and shelter are essential to protect homes from pests.^[14] Schools,^[15] health care facilities,^[16] food services and other businesses also require careful and ongoing sanitation practices.^[17][18]

If pests reach an unacceptable level, mechanical control methods can be used,^[1] such as simple hand-picking to remove insects, water spraying,^[19] vacuuming,^[20] barriers, and traps. Tillage can be detrimental to soil structure, but it is sometimes used in coordination with the life cycles of pests.^[21]

Monitoring

Acceptable pest levels—IPM holds that wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the attempt can be expensive and unsafe. Emphasis is placed on control, not eradication.^[1]

IPM programs identify acceptable pest levels or action thresholds based on estimated economic injury, and apply controls if those thresholds are exceeded.^[1] An economic injury level is the pest population level at which damage to a crop will be greater than the cost of treating the pest. An economic threshold is the population size at which action must be taken to prevent the pest population from reaching the economic injury level.^[1] Thresholds are pest and site specific, meaning that it may be acceptable to have a weed such at one site,^[22] but not at another site.^[23] For example, white clover may be acceptable on the sides of a tee box on a golf course, but not in the fairway where it could interfere with play.^[24]

Allowing a pest population to survive at a reasonable threshold reduces selection pressure. This lowers the rate at which a pest develops resistance to a control, because if almost all pests are killed then those that have resistance will provide the genetic basis of the future population. Retaining a significant number of unresistant specimens dilutes the prevalence of any resistant genes that appear. Similarly, the repeated use of a single class of controls will create pest populations that are more resistant to that class, whereas alternating among classes helps prevent this.^[6][7][25]

Regular observation is critically important for inspection, pest identification and ongoing monitoring. Scouting and sampling techniques such as visual inspection, insect and spore traps, and other methods are used to monitor pest levels. Automated systems using AI are also being developed for monitoring, but face obstacles in terms of their cost, effectiveness, mobility, and scalability to use in the field.^[1]

Record-keeping is essential,^[26][27] as is a thorough knowledge of target pest behavior and reproductive cycles. Insects are cold-blooded, so their physical development is dependent on area temperatures. Many insects have had their development cycles modeled in terms of degree-days. The degree days of an environment determines the optimal time for a specific insect outbreak.^[28][29] Plant pathogens follow similar patterns of response to weather and season. However, these are increasingly disrupted by climate change.^[30]

Biological controls

Natural biological processes and materials can be used as biological control agents (BCAs), with acceptable environmental impact, often at low cost. The main approach is to promote beneficial insects or other predators that eat or parasitize target pests.^[31][32] Augmentative biocontrol involves increasing natural enemies and pathogens such as predators, parasitoids or microbes, so that they can fight pests and diseases in an area on a timely basis. Conservation biocontrol uses farming practices to better support existing populations of natural enemies already in the environment, such as ladybugs, so that they increase. Classical biological control or importation biocontrol introduces new populations of natural enemies or pathogens which may not be native to an area.^[33][1]

Beneficial fungi and bacteria produce bioactive compounds that can protect soil and crops from bacterial, fungal, and nematode diseases, reducing the need for fungicides. Beneficial bacteria can improve plant growth and control disease without harming the environment.^[34]

Genetic pest control introduces genetically modified organisms to reduce pest populations. For example, the sterile insect technique (SIT) releases sterilized males of a given species so that matings will be infertile. By targeting the reproductive capacity of the target pest, population size is reduced to non-critical levels. Other genetic approaches manipulate sex determination genes, increase the occurrence of dominant lethal genes, or skew sex ratios in the population. Genetic control programs' success depends on the dispersal rate, longevity, and mating success of introduced pests.^[35][1]

Chemical controls

Synthetic pesticides, which include insecticides,^[36] fungicides,^[37] and herbicides,^[38] have been shown to have a wide range of negative effects on non-target as well as target organisms.^[39] Responsible use of pesticides involves using them only as required and often only at specific times in a pest's life cycle.^[1]

Biological insecticides, derived from naturally occurring microorganisms (e.g.—Bt, entomopathogenic fungi and entomopathogenic nematodes), also fall in the category of chemical controls.^[1][34] Many newer pesticides are derived from plants or naturally occurring substances (e.g.—nicotine, pyrethrum and insect juvenile hormone analogues), but the toxophore or active component may be altered to provide increased biological activity or stability.^[8] Chemical controls also include horticultural oils.^[40]

Applications of pesticides must reach their intended targets and avoid harming nontarget species. The application technique must be matched to the crop, the pest, and the pesticide.^[41] For example, the use of low-volume spray equipment can reduce overall pesticide use and operational costs.^[8][42] Taking all recommended precautions is critical.^[41] IPM is an alternative to calendar-based pest control approaches which are becoming less effective, in part due to climate change.^[43]

IPM practices known as resistance management are essential in preventing and slowing the development of resistance to chemical controls, including biological insecticides.^{[6][7][44][45][46]}

Process

Using these components, integrated pest management becomes an ongoing process that can be thought of in terms of six repeatable steps:^[47]

Residential pest management

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) can be an effective approach for dealing with pests in one's home or yard. Pests such as cockroaches, mice, and rats are harmful to human health. They worsen indoor air quality and can trigger asthma and allergy attacks. Pest problems can be addressed in a sustainable way using information about specific pests, their environment, and safe pest control methods.^[14]

In homes, it is essential to understand and control access to food, water, and hiding places, all of which pests need to survive. IPM focuses on prevention, sanitation, and exclusion of pests rather than chemical controls. It involves identifying pests, sealing entry points, and removing food and water sources. IPM prioritizes low-toxicity methods to create a healthy home environment.^[14]

The first step is monitoring to identify the pest and where it is living. Check regularly for pest activity. Sanitation is essential to remove sources of food and water: keep your house dry and clean, fix leaks, store food (including pet food) in sealed containers, clean up crumbs and spills by sweeping and washing floors and counters, don't leave food about, and dispose of recyclables and trash properly. Exclusion prevents pests from gaining access to your home: seal cracks both indoors and outdoors, fix holes or gaps in walls, floors, and ceilings, repair window screens, and use door sweeps to ensure that doors fit tightly. Keep plants and objects clear of the foundation of your house.^[14]

Capture rodents by using trapping devices. If chemicals are necessary for dealing with pests, select the least toxic, most targeted options. Use chemicals (including baits) carefully, to protect sensitive individuals from chemical exposure. Keep them out of reach of children and pets.^[14]

Agricultural pest management

IPM is the selection and use^[5] of pest control actions to achieve favourable economic, ecological and social consequences. A formal IPM process starts with monitoring, which includes inspection and identification.^[59]

Monitoring begins immediately, before the pest's activity becomes significant. Monitoring of agricultural pests includes tracking soil/planting media fertility and water quality. Overall plant health and resistance to pests is greatly influenced by pH, alkalinity, of dissolved mineral and oxygen reduction potential. Many diseases are waterborne, spread directly by irrigation water and indirectly by splashing.

Once the pest is known, knowledge of its lifecycle provides the optimal intervention points.^[60] For example, weeds reproducing from last year's seed can be prevented with mulches and pre-emergent herbicide.^{[citation needed]}

Mistaken identification of a pest may result in ineffective actions. E.g., plant damage due to over-watering could be mistaken for fungal infection, since many fungal and viral infections arise under moist conditions.

Monitoring is followed by the establishment of economic injury levels. Economic Injury level is the pest population level at which crop damage exceeds the cost of treatment of pest. The economic injury levels determine the economic threshold level, the population level at which action should be taken to prevent the pest population from increasing beyond acceptable levels. Action threshold levels can also be established based on outcomes other than economic damage.^[59] Economic injury levels are more common in classic agricultural pest management, and action thresholds in structural pest management. Green pest management IPM programs may additionally prioritize goals such as reducing contamination, lowering greenhouse gas emissions, and conserving biodiversity in addition to economic goals.^[61]

Risk assessment usually includes four issues: 1) characterization of biological control agents, 2) health risks, 3) environmental risks and 4) efficacy.^[62] An example of differing action thresholds based on risk assessment would be that one fly in a barn would be acceptable, but one fly in a hospital operating room would not be acceptable. Once a threshold has been crossed by the pest population action steps need to be taken to reduce and control the pest.

Pest-tolerant crops such as soybeans may not warrant interventions unless the pests are numerous or rapidly increasing. Intervention is warranted if the expected cost of damage by the pest is more than the cost of control. Specific sites may also have varying requirements.^[63]

Integrated pest management employs a variety of actions including cultural controls, physical barriers, mechanical interventions, biological controls such as adding and conserving natural predators and enemies of the pest, and finally chemical controls or pesticides. Cultural controls include keeping an area free of conducive conditions by removing waste or diseased plants, flooding, sanding, and the use of disease-resistant crop varieties. Mechanical/physical controls include picking pests off plants, or using netting or other material to exclude pests such as birds from grapes or rodents from structures.^[64] Biological controls are numerous. They include conservation of natural predators, augmentation of natural predators, and sterile insect technique (SIT).^[65]

IPM can include the use of livestock. Animals like goats, chickens and ducks can be used to control weeds, insects and other unwanted organisms. Goats are able to eat poison ivy, a plant that is toxic to other species. Chickens are often used in orchards to scratch away at leaf litter where they eat insects, weed seeds and larva. Livestock IPM reduces the need for chemical alternatives. There are many benefits, one being a producer of manure and improving soil fertility. Live stock can be incredibly effective when monitored carefully ^[66][67]

Augmentation, inoculative release and inundate release are different methods of biological control that affect the target pest in different ways. Augmentative control includes the periodic introduction of predators.^{[68][69][70][71][72]} With inundative release, predators are collected, mass-reared and periodically released in large numbers into the pest area.^[73][74][75] This is used for an immediate reduction in host populations, generally for annual crops, but is not suitable for long run use.^[76]

With inoculative release a limited number of beneficial organisms are introduced at the start of the growing season. This strategy offers long term control as the organism's progeny affect pest populations throughout the season and is common in orchards.^[76][77] With seasonal inoculative release the beneficials are collected, mass-reared and released seasonally to maintain the beneficial population. This is commonly used in greenhouses.^[77] In America and other western countries, inundative releases are predominant, while Asia and the eastern Europe more commonly use inoculation and occasional introductions.^[76]

The sterile insect technique (SIT) is an area-wide IPM program that introduces sterile male pests into the pest population to trick females into (unsuccessful) breeding encounters, providing a form of birth control and reducing reproduction rates.^[65] The biological controls mentioned above only appropriate in extreme cases, because in the introduction of new species, or supplementation of naturally occurring species can have detrimental ecosystem effects. Biological controls can be used to stop invasive species or pests, but they can become an introduction path for new pests.^[78]

Reliance on knowledge, experience, observation and integration of multiple techniques makes IPM appropriate for organic farming (excluding synthetic pesticides). These may or may not include materials listed on the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI)^[79] Although the pesticides and particularly insecticides used in organic farming and organic gardening are generally safer than synthetic pesticides, they are not always more safe or environmentally friendly than synthetic pesticides and can cause harm.^[80] For conventional farms IPM can reduce human and environmental exposure to hazardous chemicals, and potentially lower overall costs.^{[citation needed]}

Pesticides can be classified by their modes of action. Rotating among materials with diverse modes of action minimizes pest resistance.^[64]

Evaluation is the process of assessing whether the intervention was effective, whether it produced unacceptable side effects, whether to continue, revise or abandon the program.^[81]

Books

• Bennett, Gary W.; Owens, John M.; Corrigan, Robert M. (2010). Truman's Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations. Purdue University. ISBN 978-0-9793986-1-2.
• Dreistadt, Steve H. (2004). Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs: An Integrated Pest Management Guide. UCANR Publications. ISBN 978-1-879906-61-7. photos, reference tables, diagrams, 1st edition; 3rd edition, January 1, 2016.
• Dyck, Victor A. (2021). Sterile Insect Technique: Principles And Practice In Area-Wide Integrated Pest Management. Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar: Taylor & Francis CRC Press [Imprint]. ISBN 978-0367474348.
• Mallis, Arnold (2011). Hedges, Stoy A.; Moreland, Dan (eds.). Handbook of pest control: the behavior, life history and control of household pests (Tenth ed.). Richfield, Ohio: The Mallis Handbook Company. pp. 1499–1500. ISBN 978-1890561024.; 11th edition, 2025.
• Norris, Robert F.; Caswell-Chen, Edward P.; Kogan, Marcos (2003). Concepts in integrated pest management. Prentice Hall PTR. ISBN 978-0-13-087016-2.
• Ryder, Suzanne; Crossman, Amy, eds. (2022). Integrated pest management for collections: proceedings of 2021: A Pest Odyssey, The Next Generation. London: Archetype Publications. ISBN 9781909492837.

Papers

• Hajjar, M. Jamal; Ahmed, Nazeer; Alhudaib, Khalid A.; Ullah, Hidayat (2 March 2023). "Integrated Insect Pest Management Techniques for Rice". Sustainability. 15 (5): 4499. Bibcode:2023Sust...15.4499H. doi:10.3390/su15054499. ISSN 2071-1050.
• Hassanali, A.; Herren, H.; Khan, Z. R.; Pickett, J. A.; Woodcock, C. M. (2008). "Integrated pest management: the push-pull approach for controlling insect pests and weeds of cereals, and its potential for other agricultural systems including animal husbandry". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 363 (1491): 611–21. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2173. PMC 2610173. PMID 17652071.
• Mabitsela, Mosima M.; Motsi, Hamond; Phiri, Ethel E. (2025). "Management of pests and diseases in African indigenous crops: A systematic review". Journal of Underutilised Crops Research. 4 (1): 30. doi:10.4102/jucr.v4i1.30. hdl:10520/ejc-jucr_v4_n1_a30.
• Pegalepo, E; Bocco, R; Onaga, G; Nwilene, F; Tamò, M; Togola, A; Katiyar, SK (18 November 2025). "Sustainable Insect Pest Management Options for Rice Production in Sub-Saharan Africa". Insects. 16 (11): 1175. doi:10.3390/insects16111175. PMC 12653844. PMID 41302920.