Residences

Internal migrations or the establishment of new residences by the royal family or its branches are evident throughout the history of Venadu.^[10] Before the dissolution of the medieval Chera state of Kerala in the early 12th century CE, the rulers of Venadu were associated with the port of Kollam, with "Panankavil Palace" serving as their royal residence. Evidence from the 12th century indicates that the rulers of Venadu belonged to or lived in Kizhperur, Kilimanoor, while tradition also links them to Vadasery, Nagarcoil. The ruling family had another residence at Trippappoor in Trivandrum, and at least during the 14th century, they lived at Tiruvitamcode in Kalkulam.^[10]

From the 13th century, there is reference to a royal residence at Attingal (the Mother's House, "Kupaka" in Sanskrit^[21]), which was under a woman ruler, and in the early 14th century CE, the Venadu rulers moved to Kallada, Kollam, forming a separate family branch that ruled the region of Jayasimhanadu or Desinganadu.^[10] From this time onwards, the rulers of Venadu usually prefixed to their names those of the two residences, "Kizhperur Trippappoor" and "Kizhperur Desinganadu".^[10]

Another important branch, the Chiravay House, originally based at Mayamkulum, Kollam, later migrated to southern Venadu; it did not control a separate region but claimed a share of the territory's income, and the senior princes of Venadu often assumed the title "Chiravay Muppu". The Kunninmel Elayedam branch established itself at Kottarakkara, controlling the territory up to the Western Ghats (the first reference to the title Kunninmel appears in the early 14th century, and references to Elayedam Branch appear regularly from the early 16th century), while the Perakattavazhi ruled the region of Nedumangadu near the Western Ghats, first mentioned in a record of the 16th century CE.^[10]

Kur-vazhcha

Political power in Venadu was organized through a hierarchy of rights within a matrilineal kinship structure (the marumakkathayam). The ruling family of Venadu itself was a network of several lineages.^[10] The system of succession in Venadu was based on the concept of "kuru", meaning the gradation of rights within a family. References to "Ilankuru" or junior right holder appear as early as the 9th century CE, when Venadu was under Chera authority.^[10] This graded system, known as "kurvazhcha", determined the order of succession within the royal family.^[10]

Several Venadu inscriptions indicate that the state was supported by a body of warriors known as "arisippadijanam".^[14]

Swarupams

Political power in Venadu was exercised through extended royal joint families or lineages, known as "swarupams", which claimed descent from, or were related to, the original ruling family. These included Trippappoor, Desinganadu, Chiravay, and later Elayadam.^[10][17] Each swarupam was headed by a family elder, known as the "mutta tiruvadi", followed by other male members ranked according to seniority ("mura").^[10] These swarupams followed a matrilineal system, in which succession passed from uncle to nephew — not to one's own son, but to the eldest son of one's sister.^[10][2]

The swarupams were further divided into matrilineal descent groups or segments called "tay-vazhis" (or "tavazhis"), and the ranking system of each swarupam included all these tavazhis. One such descent group, Perakattavazhi, later evolved into a swarupam known as Nedumangadu.^[10][22]

The muppans (eldest male members) of Trippappoor, Desinganadu, and Chiravay could each claim rulership over Venadu, with the Chiravay elder was regarded as the senior-most, followed by the Trippappoor elder. However, this hierarchy was not always maintained, and overlapping claims were common. Trippappoor and Desinganadu were closely connected to the Mother's House at Attingal and traced descent from the Kizhperur House, while Elayadam and Perakattavazhi emerged as claimants to Venadu only from the 17th century onward.^[10]

Marriage alliances and adoptions

The sisters of the rulers of Venadu were traditionally tali-married to Surya Vamsha Kshatriya princes of higher status from central or northern Kerala. These princes were initially known as "Koyil Adhikarikal" and later came to be styled "Koyil Thampurans".^[23] According to tradition, this system of marital alliances was inaugurated in Kollam Era 300 (1125 CE).^[23]

Another tradition, first recorded by Mateer (1871), dates the earliest adoption into the Venadu royal family from the Kolathunadu royal house of northern Kerala to Kollam Era 480 (1304/05 CE), in the form of two princesses.^[24] The initial settlement of the Koyil Thampurans from northern Kerala at Kilimanoor was established in order to preserve their customary marital alliances with the Kolathunadu princesses who had been installed at Attingal. This development occurred around the same period as the first adoption of the Kolathunadu princesses into the Venadu royal family.^[23]

Antecedents

During the early historic period in south India (c. 1st–2nd century CE), "Velnadu" — corresponding to medieval Venadu — was part of the Ay country, ruled by Ay chiefs under Pandya control.^[2][18]

In the early medieval period, Pandya incursions into southern Kerala led to conflicts with the medieval Chera rulers of Kerala, resulting by the 9th century in the division of the ancient Ay country: Venadu (based at Kollam or Quilon) came under Chera influence, while the remaining Ay territory fell under Pandya control.^[18][25] The Kollam Era, instituted in 824-825 CE, likely marked the founding of the Kollam port and the rise of Chera authority in southern Kerala.^[26] Records such as the Quilon Syrian plates (c. 849 CE) mention the Venadu chief (the Venattadikal) Ayyan Adikal and his overlord, the medieval Chera ruler of Kerala, Sthanu Ravi, and highlight Kollam's growing prominence in the Indian Ocean spice trade with the Middle East and East Asia.^[27][28][29] The Malabar Coast, including Venadu, came under imperial Chola control by the late 10th and early 11th centuries CE.^[25][18][15]

As Pandya tributaries

It is speculated that the threat of attacks from the imperial Cholas compelled the last medieval Chera ruler of Kerala, Rama Kulasekhara (early 12th century CE), to reside for an extended period at the port of Kollam (Quilon).^[30] According to local traditions, as recorded by writers such as Samuel Mateer, Vira Kerala, the first ruler of Venadu, was his son.^[31][32] After the dissolution of the medieval Chera state of Kerala around the 12th century, Venadu emerged as a powerful principality in southern Malabar.^[16][1] Venadu then came to be known as the kingdom of the Cheras (thus, the Malai-nadu/mandalam or the Malayalam^[33]) or the Kulasekharas.^[34][19]

Following the decline of Chola power after the reign of Kulothunga I (early 12th century), the rulers of Venadu extended their control over the Nanjinadu region (Thovalai and Agastheeswaram taluks, Kanyakumari), thereby bringing under their authority the territory between Kollam in the north and Suchindram or Nagercoil in the south.^[35][10] It is notably recorded that a Kupaka ruler defeated the Pandya ruler Raja Simha in Kollam Era 296 (1121 CE).^[36] However, inscriptions of the Pandya ruler Maravarman Sri Vallabha (1139–1169 CE), who was the overlord of the then Venadu ruler and was married to a Venadu princess, have been found at Puravari and Suchindram.^[37] When the Pandya ruler Vira Pandya was defeated by the Chola ruler Kulothunga in 1182 CE, he found asylum in Venadu. It is possible that the Venadu ruler, having supported the Pandya, was also defeated by Kulothunga.^[38]

In the latter half of the 13th century, Venadu came under the control of the Pandyas, when rulers such as Jatavarman Sundara Pandya and Maravarman Kulasekhara asserted their dominance over the region.^[34][39] Sundara Pandya appears to have marched against the ruler of Venadu, defeated the Venadu forces in battle, and compelled Venadu to pay tribute (and possibly killed the Venadu ruler in the conflict).^[4] Maravarman Kulasekhara is notably described as "the one who destroyed the Chera ruler and captured Kollam" (c. 1275 CE).^[40] Records of Venadu rulers are virtually nonexistent in the second half of the 13th century, suggesting that Venadu became one of the mandalams of the Pandya state. During this period, the rulers of Venadu appear to have adopted imperial Pandya titles.^[4]

Raids of Ravi Varma Kulasekhara

In the early 14th century, the Venadu ruler Ravi Varma Kulasekhara (c. 1266 - 1317^[41]), taking advantage of the confusion caused by the Pandya civil wars and the Khalji invasions, led military raids to the northern frontiers of south India (1312–1316).^[42][16] Starting as a Pandya tributory, Kulasekhara went on to celeberate his victories at Madurai.^[6] His inscriptions have been found in Srirangam and as far north as Kanchi (1314) and Poonamallee, a suburb of Chennai.^[16][6] Kulasekhara's marriage to a Pandya princess, which preceded his campaigns, greatly facilitated his later conquests in the Tamil country.^[43] However, it is recorded that Vira Udaya Marttanda Varma, also known as Vira Pandya Deva, the successor of Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, was a tributary of the Pandyas.^[44]

Struggles with the Madurai sultans and the Vijayanagara

Muslim raiders from the Tamil country (across the Western Ghats) ravaged the southern parts of Venadu during the early part of Vira Ravi Varma's reign. This compelled him to shift his royal residence to Thovalai.^[45] The Madurai sultans, until their withdrawal from Madurai in 1365, also conducted raids in Nanjinadu. In response, the Venadu rulers established a palace at Kottar in addition to the one at Thovalai and permanently stationed a large number of warriors there.^[45] The Venadu prince Aditya Varma (1376–1383) is believed to have successfully resisted the raids by Madurai forces along the Venadu borders.^[7][45] The Vijayanagara ruler Devarya II, who ascended the throne in 1426, is said to have subjugated the ruler of Kollam and received tribute from him.^[46] During this period, Venadu's influence is recorded to have extended into the interior regions of Tirunelveli.^[7][46]

In Colonial period

In 1498, during the Age of Discovery, the Portuguese expedition to India reached Kozhikode (Calicut), the capital of the Zamorin's kingdom, thereby opening a direct sea route between Europe and Asia.^[34] In 1504, they became the first Europeans to establish a trading centre at Kollam (Quilon), which served as the hub of their spice trade, especially in black pepper, marking the beginning of Portuguese influence in southern Malabar.^[47][48]

Vira Udaya Marthanda Varma (1516–1535), a tolerant ruler who granted lands to the Jains and exempted the Christian Paravas from certain oppressive taxes, acknowledged the supremacy of the Vijayanagara rulers (after minor clashes with their forces on the banks of the river Thamirabarani).^[7] The conflict with Vijayanagara continued, as commanders such as Rama Raya Vithala defeated the Venadu forces during the reign of king Vira Kerala Varma (1544–1545).^[7]

• Well into the modern period, Venadu remained one of the principal states of Malabar, along with the kingdoms of Kannur (Cannanore; Kolathunadu), Kozhikode (Calicut; ruled by the Zamorins), and Kochi (Cochin; Perumpadappu).^{[2][3][22][49]}
• The Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum), managed by the Venadu rulers, was an important centre of worship in southern Kerala.^{[50] [41]}
• In the 17th century, the rulers of Venadu paid an annual tribute to the Nayaks of Madurai.^[3][8] By this time, the old state of Venadu had fragmented into several collateral branches, including Trippappoor, Elayadam (Kottarakara), Desinganadu (Kollam), and Perakattavazhi (Nedumangadu).^[17] Although divided into branches, the whole region was still known collectively as Venadu.^[51]

• During the regency of Umayamma (1677–1684), southern Venadu (Nanjinadu) was famously overrun by a Muslim adventurer.^[7]
• The English East India Company established a factory at Vizhinjam in 1664, followed by the construction of a fort at Anchuthengu (Ajengo) in 1695.^[7] In 1721, around 150 Company men from the Anjengo Factory, on their way to an audience with the queen-mother, were killed by a local mob in what came to be known as the Attingal Outbreak.^[7]
• Ravi Varma, who ruled from 1721 to 1729, later entered into formal treaty agreements with both the Company and the Nayaks of Madurai.^[7] The main purpose of these arrangements was to strengthen the ruler's position against the regional nobles (such as the Ettuvittil Pillamar) and other "hostile elements" within Venadu.^[7]

From 12th century onwards

Travancore government publications

• Menon, P. Shungoonny (1878). A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times. Madras: Higginbotham and Co.
• Aiya, V. Nagam (1999) [1906]. The Travancore State Manual. Kerala Gazetteers Department, Government of Kerala. ISBN 978-81-85499-32-1.
• Pillai, T. K. Velu (1940). The Travancore State Manual. Trivandrum: Government of Travancore.
• "Travancore Archaeological Series". Travancore Archaeological Series. I–IX. Trivandrum (Travancore/Kerala): Government Press (Travancore), Government of Travancore. 1910–38.

Modern publications

• Alexander, P. C. (1946). The Dutch in Malabar. Annamalai University Historical Series. Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
• Champakalakshmi, R.; Veluthat, K.; Venugopalan, T. R., eds. (2002). State and Society in Premodern South India. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks.
• Kunju, A. P. Ibrahim (1976). Rise of Travancore: A Study of the Life and Times of Martanda Varma. Trivandrum: Kerala Historical Society.
• Karashima, Noburu, ed. (2014). "States in the Deccan and Kerala". A Concise History of South India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-809977-2.
• Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. ISBN 9788188765072.
• Menon, A. Sreedhara (2007) [1967]. A Survey of Kerala History. Kottayam (Kerala): DC Books. ISBN 978-81-264-1578-6.
• Gupta, Ashin Das (1967). Malabar and the Asian Trade: 1740 - 1800. Cambridge South Asian Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Champakalakshmi, R.; Veluthat, K.; Venugopalan, T. R., eds. (2002). State and Society in Premodern South India. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks.
• Cherian, P. J., ed. (1999). Perspectives on Kerala History – The Second Millennium. Trivandrum (Kerala): Kerala Gazetteers Department.
• De Lannoy, Mark (1997). The Kulasekhara Perumals of Travancore: History and State Formation in Travancore from 1671 to 1758. Leiden: CNWS Publications, Leiden University. ISBN 90-73782-92-9.
• Veluthat, Kesavan (2012) [1993]. The Political Structure of Early Medieval South India (2nd revised ed.). New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.

Articles/research theses

• Chackochan, P. L. (1979). Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729. Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute. hdl:10603/563332.
• Ganesh, K. N. (1990). "The Process of State Formation in Travancore". Studies in History. 6 (1): 15–33. doi:10.1177/025764309000600102. ISSN 0257-6430.
• Ganesh, K. N. (2009). "Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala". Indian Historical Review. 36 (1): 3–21. doi:10.1177/037698360903600102. ISSN 0376-9836. S2CID 145359607.
• Ganesh, K. N. (1987). Champakalakshmi, R. (ed.). Agrarian Relations and Political Authority in Medieval Travancore (AD 1300-1750). New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru University. hdl:10603/16385.
• Vielle, Christophe (2011). "Ravivarman Kulaśekhara the Yādava and Sagara the Son of Yādavī: Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala". Religions of South Asia. 5 (1/15.2). doi:10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365. hdl:2078.1/129594. ISSN 1751-2689.