Prehistory

The Hexi Corridor has been the site of cultural exchanges across Eurasia since prehistory.^[41] It was first settled around 4800 BP in Neolithic times by millet farmers from the Yangshao Culture in the western Loess Plateau,^[42][43][44] who enabled the spread of millet to Central Asia and the rest of Eurasia and Africa.^[45] These farmers also used pottery production techniques from Northern China.^[43] Several cultures developed in the Hexi corridor during this time, such as the Majiayao, Banshan, and Machang.^[46]

The oldest known bronze object discovered in China, dating to 5000–4500 BP, was unearthed at the Majiayao site.^[47] The introduction of copper-smelting technology around 4200 BP marked the beginning of the Bronze Age in the Hexi Corridor,^[48][49] and bronze production reached its peak between 4000 and 3500 BP.^[50] Bronze artifacts from the Hexi Corridor dating to this period account for approximately 70 percent of all bronze objects found in China prior to the Shang dynasty.^[51] During this time, domesticated livestock were introduced to the region,^[52] so local cultures such as the Shajing, Qijia, Xichengyi, Siba, and Shanma developed agricultural economies based on smelting copper, cultivating millet, and herding animals such as sheep, pigs, cattle, and horses.^[53][54]

Wheat and barley from the Fertile Crescent arrived in the Hexi Corridor via Central Asia around 4000 BP,^[55][56][57] and from there spread into China proper.^[58] By around 3700–3500 BP, most likely due increasing aridity caused by the retreat of the East Asian Monsoon,^[59][60] the more drought-resistant wheat and barley had replaced millet as the main staple crop in the Hexi Corridor.^[61][56][62] Cultures after this time period (such as the Shajing culture) saw a decrease in site numbers and bronze artifacts,^[63][64][65] and became dominated by nomadic production rather than agriculture.^[66][67]

Han dynasty

The nomadic Yuezhi resided in the Hexi Corridor in the 3rd century BCE.^[68] The Great Wall of China was constructed into parts of the Hexi Corridor following the Qin-Xiongnu Wars,^[69] and the defeated Xiongnu formed a confederacy under leader Modu Chanyu.^[70][71] In 176 BCE, the Xiongnu defeated the Yuezhi, most of whom fled from the region while the remaining population moved south into the Qilian Mountains to live with the Qiang.^[72][73] The Xiongnu were subsequently in complete control of the Hexi Corridor.^[74][75]

During the Han-Xiongnu Wars, Han dynasty general Huo Qubing expelled the Xiongnu from the Hexi Corridor at the Battle of Hexi [zh] (121 BCE).^[76][77] The province of Liangzhou was created with its capital at Guzang (modern Wuwei City), within which the commanderies of Wuwei, Zhangye, Jiuquan and Dunhuang (the Four Commanderies of Hexi) were established.^[77][78][79] This gave the Han dynasty control over major trade routes to Central Asia and is regarded by most scholars as the beginning of the Silk Road.^[80][81][82] Agricultural garrison towns were established in the Hexi Corridor to secure the route and the Great Wall was extended to Yumen Pass 80 kilometres (50 mi) west of Dunhuang.^[83][84][85] Additionally, the Han dynasty's acquisition of the Hexi Corridor allowed them to conquer the Tarim Basin and establish the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BCE,^[86][87] and proved instrumental in defeating the Xiongnu as it prevented contact between them and the Qiang.^[88][89]

Following the collapse of the interregnum Xin dynasty in 23 CE, the Hexi Corridor was settled by large numbers of Qiang people and came under the control of warlord Dou Rong [zh], who submitted to the reinstated Eastern Han dynasty in 29 CE.^[90][91][92] In the 2nd century CE, millions of Han settlers withdrew from the Hexi Corridor when the Qiang began to raid the region.^[93][94][95] The Yuezhi, Xiongnu, and Qiang instigated the Liangzhou Rebellion in 184, which largely isolated the Hexi Corridor from central control and contributed to the fall of the Han dynasty.^[96][97][98] By the end of the Han dynasty, the Hexi Corridor was occupied by warlords Han Sui, Ma Teng and Ma Chao.^[99][100] In 214, warlord Cao Cao conquered the region and incorporated it into his state of Cao Wei.^[101]

Six Dynasties and Sixteen Kingdoms

Cao Cao's son Cao Pi of Wei deposed the Han dynasty in 220, marking the start of the Three Kingdoms era.^[102][103] In 230, rival Three Kingdoms state Shu Han attacked the Hexi Corridor as part of Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions.^[104] In 266, Cao Wei became the Jin dynasty, which inherited the Hexi Corridor.^[105][106] In 270, the Xianbei, related to the Xiongnu, began a rebellion in the region which lasted until 279.^[107] Starting in the late 3rd century, groups such as the Kushans (descended from the Yuezhi) and Sogdians established a widespread presence in the Hexi Corridor as merchants along the Silk Road.^[108][109] These groups contributed significantly to the spread of belief systems such as Buddhism into the Hexi Corridor.^{[110][111][112]}

The state of Former Liang was founded in the Hexi Corridor in the early 4th century, and became the longest-lasting and most politically stable of the Sixteen Kingdoms.^[113][114] In 376, Former Liang was conquered by Former Qin; various parts of the Hexi Corridor then came under the control of Later Liang in 386, Southern and Northern Liang in 397, and Western Liang in 400, before reunifying under Northern Liang in 421.^[115][116] During this period, the Hexi Corridor was spared from much of the turmoil of the Central China Plains, which caused increased migration to the region and led to it becoming a centre of culture in China.^{[117][118][119]} Buddhist culture and activity flourished in the region; the first of the Mogao Caves were constructed during this time,^[120] and the extensive creation of Buddhist artworks and translation of texts at this time directly contributed to the adoption of the religion in the rest of China.^[121][122]

In 439, Northern Wei conquered Northern Liang and ended the Sixteen Kingdoms era, though the final Northern Liang stronghold at Dunhuang remained until 442.^[123][124] A garrison was then established at Dunhuang to defend against the Rouran and significant numbers of civilians were moved from the Hexi Corridor to the Wei capital at Pingcheng, promoting the readoption of classical Chinese culture and spread of Buddhism in the Central Plains.^{[119][125][126]} In the 470s, the Northern Wei government considered abandoning the Hexi Corridor due to repeated raids by the Rouran. They later defeated the Rouran in 492, although the region remained largely desolate into the early 6th century.^[127][128] After the fall of Northern Wei, the Hexi Corridor came into the control of Western Wei in 535, which became Northern Zhou in 557.^[129][130]

Medieval history

In 581, Northern Zhou became the Sui dynasty,^[131] which later reunited China Proper for the first time in three centuries.^[132][133] In 609, Emperor Yang of Sui toured the region and personally commanded an expedition against the Tuyuhun to protect its trade routes.^[134][135] Warlord Li Gui seized control of the Hexi Corridor in 617 and proclaimed himself ruler of Liang, which was conquered by the newly-founded Tang dynasty in 619.^[136][137] In 627, Buddhist monk Xuanzang passed through the Hexi Corridor on his way to India.^[138][139]

Between 630 and 657, the Tang dynasty conquered territories from several Central Asian states to secure the Hexi Corridor and consolidate control over the Silk Road.^[140][141] The renewed stability encouraged trade and cultural exchange; religions such as Zoroastrianism, Nestorian Christianity, and Islam spread through the region into central China, and cities in the Hexi Corridor became increasingly cosmopolitan.^[142] This expansion also brought the Tang into conflict with the Tibetan Empire, which began encroaching on the Hexi Corridor around 670.^[143][144] In 711, the Hexi Corridor was organised under a military governor (jiedushi) as one of nine frontier commands of the Tang dynasty,^[145] which by 742 possessed a quarter of all horses in the empire and represented its third-largest military force.^[146]

Tang forces were withdrawn from the Hexi Corridor following the outbreak of the An Lushan Rebellion in 755 and the Tibetan Empire gradually occupied the region, culminating in their capture of Dunhuang in 786 and the rest of the Hexi Corridor in the 790s.^[148][149] Following this, residents of the region adopted various Tibetan customs such as the use of Tibetan names and the Tibetan script, which continued even after the Tang dynasty reasserted control.^[150] Tibetan influence in the Hexi Corridor during this period led to the spread of Tibetan Buddhist culture to the rest of Eurasia, where it remained a dominant culture into the early 20th century.^[151][152]

The Tibetan Empire collapsed in 842;^[153] the Hexi Corridor was then seized by warlord Zhang Yichao in 848, who established the Tang-loyal Guiyi Circuit in 851.^[154][155] The Guiyi Circuit reunified the Hexi Corridor and reached its greatest extent in the 860s.^[156] Its power and territory then steadily declined under pressure from two Uyghur states: the Qocho Kingdom in the Tarim Basin to the west and the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom to the east,^[157] which was founded after the Guiyi Circuit lost control of its eastern provinces in the 880s.^[158]

By the early 10th century, the Guiyi Circuit was confined to the area surrounding Dunhuang, and was almost completely isolated from the rest of China by the Ganzhou Uyghurs' seizure of goods along the Silk Road.^[159][160] In 911, the Guiyi Circuit became a vassal of the Ganzhou Uyghurs and reopened the Silk Road in 925.^[161][162] After this, Dunhuang once again became a centre of culture in the region;^[163] some of the largest temples at the Mogao Caves were constructed during this time, and Buddhist texts produced at Dunhuang were freely distributed to the Ganzhou and Qocho kingdoms. This revival was partly driven and financed by the diplomatic relations that the three states maintained with one another and with the dominant dynasties of the Central Plains.^[164][165]

Western Xia dynasty and Mongol rule

The timeline of the Hexi Corridor's conquest by the Tangut-led Western Xia dynasty remains somewhat unclear, with Western Xia likely beginning its invasion in 1028 and completing the conquest in 1036.^[166] However, a state (possibly the Guiyi Circuit or a Uyghur kingdom) in the vicinity of Dunhuang may have remained independent until at least 1052, though it is known that Western Xia controlled the entire region by the 1070s.^[167][168] After the conquest of the Hexi Corridor, large numbers of civilians were mobilized for a campaign against the Song dynasty and the region's trade routes were increasingly bypassed by merchants, leading to a decline in the region's prosperity.^[169][170]

In 1205, the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan plundered the Hexi Corridor in the first of their attacks on Western Xia; this was followed in 1209 by a full-scale invasion launched through the corridor which led to Western Xia's submission as a vassal in 1210.^[171] Genghis Khan invaded once again in 1225, conquering the entire Hexi Corridor in 1226 and the rest of Western Xia in 1227, the year of his death.^[172]

Sometime between 1271 and 1275 (shortly after the establishment of the Mongol Yuan dynasty), Marco Polo travelled through the Hexi Corridor on his way to Xanadu, and recorded sights such as the giant reclining Buddha statue at Zhangye and the region's yaks.^[173]

Ming and Qing dynasties

In 1370, the newly-established Ming dynasty seized the eastern section of the Hexi Corridor from the Mongols and captured most of the remaining territory in 1372.^[175][176] Later that same year, they constructed Jiayu Pass 15 kilometres (9 mi) east of Dunhuang,^[174] which left the city under the control of the Northern Yuan dynasty and led to it largely being abandoned.^[177][178] By this point, the Hexi Corridor had largely lost its importance as a major trade route.^[179]

Like the Han dynasty over a millennium prior, the Ming dynasty established garrison towns along the frontier shortly after their conquest of the region.^[180][181] In 1524, Jiayu Pass was closed and Dunhuang was occupied by the Turfan Khanate.^[182] The Ming dynasty rebuilt the Great Wall through the Hexi Corridor from 1539–1541 and added an extension in 1573.^[174]

In 1644 during the Ming-Qing transition, the Hexi Corridor was briefly seized by the short-lived Shun dynasty until forces of the Qing dynasty under general Ajige defeated them in 1645.^[183] In 1648, Muslim rebels led by Milayin [zh] occupied most of Gansu and retreated west to the Hexi Corridor in June of that year, where the rebels held out against Qing generals Meng Qiaofang [zh] and Zhang Yong [zh] in the cities of Ganzhou (Zhangye) and Suzhou (Jiuquan) until 1649.^[184][185] After the Qing victory, 5,000 rebels were executed and Muslims in the Hexi Corridor were resettled away from major cities.^[179][185] Between 1674 and 1676, the Hexi Corridor was isolated from the rest of the Qing dynasty during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, in which Zhang Yong and his lieutenants played a major role in its suppression.^[186][187]

Thousands of soldiers and farmers were settled in the Hexi Corridor to cultivate the land in the 1720s as part of a defensive system designed to isolate the Dzungar Khanate from Kokonor (Qinghai),^[188] where a Dzungar uprising had been quelled.^[189] By the 1750s, yields of millet and wheat, the region's two main crops, had become so high that the Qing dynasty frequently redistributed its harvest across the empire to stabilize grain prices and alleviate famines.^[190]

Most of the Hexi Corridor fell to Muslim rebels in 1865 during the Dungan Revolt, which triggered further revolts in Xinjiang.^[191] In 1873, General Zuo Zongtang laid siege to Jiuquan with 15,000 soldiers, and attacked its walls with siege guns and explosives. More than 7,000 Muslims were executed after the city's capture, and the remaining Muslims in the Hexi Corridor were resettled to southeastern Gansu to prevent future collaboration with Muslims in Xinjiang.^[192][193]

In 1907, archaeologist Aurel Stein explored the Hexi Corridor, where he rediscovered treasures such as the Mogao Caves and a collection of ancient Sogdian letters in Dunhuang.^[194][195]

Modern era

The Hexi Corridor, along with the rest of Gansu, was seized by Hui Muslim warlords in 1911 following the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the onset of the Warlord Era. These warlords established the Ma clique, which declared its allegiance to the Kuomintang government in 1927.^[196] In August 1949, Gansu was captured by the People's Liberation Army during the final stages of the Chinese Civil War.^[197]

The Lanzhou–Xinjiang railway, which runs through the Hexi Corridor, began construction in 1952 and opened in 1963.^[198] In 1987, the Mogao Caves were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[199] The Lanzhou–Xinjiang high-speed railway, also passing through the Hexi Corridor, began construction in 2009 and opened in 2014.^[200] In 2025, the Chinese government announced a plan to construct a 1,000 km (620 mi) "national heritage route" along the Hexi Corridor, which is expected to be completed in ten years.^[201][202]

Notes

Citations

Sources