Unions
In some countries, trade unions generally have constitutions, which govern activities of the international office of the union as well as how it interfaces with its locals. The locals themselves can set up their own by-laws to set out internal rules for how to conduct activities.
In other countries, such as the United Kingdom, union by-laws are sometimes a subset of the union's constitution or implement the union's rules in more detail.[19]
Universities
For British universities incorporated by royal charter the principal bylaws are normally termed statutes, a terminology deriving originally from the University of Cambridge. As for other chartered corporations, revision of these statutes requires the approval of the Privy Council.[21][22][23]
For British universities incorporated as civil corporations (Oxford and Cambridge), colleges of Oxford and Cambridge universities, and universities that are statutory corporations under individual acts of Parliament (Durham, London, Newcastle and Royal Holloway), the procedure for revision of the bylaws (known as statutes) is defined in the relevant legislation. For Oxford and Cambridge and their colleges, this is the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge Act 1923, under which amendments to some statutes (the King-in-Council statutes) must be approved by the King in Council and laid before parliament, while others can be amended by the university without approval.[24] For Durham and Newcastle, it is the Universities of Durham and Newcastle-upon-Tyne Act 1963, under which amendments to statutes must be approved by the King in Council.[25] For Royal Holloway, this is the Royal Holloway and Bedford New College Act 1985,[26]
and for London, it is the University of London Act 2018,[27] under both of which statute amendments must be approved by the Privy Council.
Below the statutes in most older British universities are further forms of bylaw normally termed ordinances and regulations. These are usually more detailed and may be amended by the university's council (or equivalent governing body) without any need for outside approval.[23]
For British universities incorporated as higher education corporations (HEC) under the Education Reform Act 1988, the procedure for revision of their bylaws, known as articles of government, is defined by that act. For HECs in Scotland and Wales, amendments must be approved by the Privy Council[22] but HECs in England gained the freedom to revise their own articles of government (subject to them remaining a charity) under the Higher Education and Research Act 2017.[28]
British universities incorporated as companies limited by guarantee or as companies limited by shares are free to amend their own bylaws as is normal for other corporations of these forms.
Whatever their constitutional form, the governing documents of universities in England, including their bylaws (however these are termed) "must uphold the public interest governance principles that are applicable to the provider" under the Office for Students' Regulatory framework for higher education in England.[29] These include: protecting academic freedom; operating openly, honestly, accountably and with integrity; student engagement with governance; effective academic governance by the senate or similar body; comprehensive risk management and control; transparency about value for money; ensuring freedom of speech within the law; having a governing body of appropriate size, composition, diversity and skills mix; ensuring governing body members and senior managers are fit and proper persons; and keeping records of the source of their degree awarding powers. For public universities, additional public interest governance principles include: having at least one (and more as appropriate) independent member of the governing body; and having arrangements to ensure public funds are managed appropriately.[30]
The term statutes is also used for university bylaws at some universities in the US, such as the University of Illinois.[31] However, others, such as Cornell University, use the term bylaws.[32] In both of these cases, amendment is by the board of trustees with no external oversight.
